NCERT CBSE Standard 12 Surface Chemistry Chapter 5 Physical Chemistry

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Solutions to Chapter 5 :

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Some of the most important chemicals are produced industrially by means of reactions that occur on the surfaces of solid catalysts.

Surface chemistry deals with phenomena that occur at the surfaces or interfaces. The interface or surface is represented by separating the bulk phases by a hyphen or a slash. For example, the interface between a solid and a gas may be represented by solid-gas or solid/gas. Due to complete miscibility, there is nointerface between the gases. The bulk phases that we come across in surface chemistry may be pure compounds or solutions. The interface is normally a few molecules thick but its area depends on the size of the particles of bulk phases. Many important phenomena, noticeable amongst these being corrosion, electrode processes, heterogeneous catalysis, dissolution and crystallisation occur at interfaces. The subject of surface chemistry finds many applications in industry, analytical work and daily life situations.

To accomplish surface studies meticulously, it becomes imperative to have a really clean surface. Under very high vacuum of the order of 10^–8 to 10^–9 pascal, it is now possible to obtain ultra clean surface of the metals. Solid materials with such clean surfaces need to be stored in vacuum otherwise these will be covered by molecules of the major components of air namely dioxygen and dinitrogen.

In this Unit, you will be studying some important features of surface chemistry such as adsorption, catalysis and colloids including emulsions and gels.

5.1 Adsorption

There are several examples, which reveal that the surface of a solid has the tendency to attract and retain the molecules of the phase with which it comes into contact. These molecules remain only at the surface and do not go deeper into the bulk. The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid is termed adsorption. The molecular species or substance, which concentrates or accumulates at the surface is termed adsorbate and the material on the surface of which the adsorption takes place is called adsorbent. Adsorption is essentially a surface phenomenon. Solids, particularly in finely divided state, have large surface area and therefore, charcoal, silica gel, alumina gel, clay, colloids, metals in finely divided state, etc. act as good adsorbents.

Adsorption in action

(i) If a gas like O₂, H₂, CO, Cl₂, NH₃ or SO₂ is taken in a closed vessel containing powdered charcoal, it is observed that the pressure of the gas in the enclosed vessel decreases. The gas molecules concentrate at the surface of the charcoal, i.e., gases are adsorbed at the surface.
(ii) In a solution of an organic dye, say methylene blue, when animal charcoal is added and the solution is well shaken, it is observed that the filtrate turns colourless. The molecules of the dye, thus, accumulate on the surface of charcoal, i.e., are adsorbed.
(iii) Aqueous solution of raw sugar, when passed over beds of animal charcoal, becomes colourless as the colouring substances are adsorbed by the charcoal.
(iv) The air becomes dry in the presence of silica gel because the water molecules get adsorbed on the surface of the gel. It is clear from the above examples that solid surfaces can hold the gas or liquid molecules by virtue of adsorption. The process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface on which it is adsorbed is called desorption.

5.1.1 Distinction between Adsorption and Absorption

In adsorption, the substance is concentrated only at the surface and does not penetrate through the surface to the bulk of the adsorbent, while in absorption, the substance is uniformly distributed throughout the bulk of the solid. For example, when a chalk stick is dipped in ink, the surface retains the colour of the ink due to adsorption of coloured molecules while the solvent of the ink goes deeper into the stick due to absorption. On breaking the chalk stick, it is found to be white from inside. A distinction can be made between absorption and adsorption by taking an example of water vapour. Water vapours are absorbed by anhydrous calcium chloride but adsorbed by silica gel. In other words, in adsorption the concentration of the adsorbate increases only at the surface of the adsorbent, while in absorption the concentration is uniform throughout the bulk of the solid.

Both adsorption and absorption can take place simultaneously also. The term sorption is used to describe both the processes.

5.1.2 Mechanism of Adsorption

Adsorption arises due to the fact that the surface particles of the adsorbent are not in the same environment as the particles inside the bulk. Inside the adsorbent all the forces acting between the particles are mutually balanced but on the surface the particles are not surrounded by atoms or molecules of their kind on all sides, and hence they possess unbalanced or residual attractive forces. These forces of the adsorbent are responsible for attracting the adsorbate particles on its surface.The extent of adsorption increases with the increase of surface area per unit mass of the adsorbent at a given temperature and pressure.

Another important factor featuring adsorption is the heat of adsorption. During adsorption, there is always a decrease in residual forces of the surface, i.e., there is decrease in surface energy which appears as heat. Adsorption, therefore, is invariably an exothermic process. In other words, ΔH of adsorption is always negative. When a gas is adsorbed, the freedom of movement of its molecules become restricted. This amounts to decrease in the entropy of the gas after adsorption, i.e., ΔS is negative. Adsorption is thus accompanied by decrease in enthalpy as well as decrease in entropy of the system. For a process to be spontaneous, the thermodynamic requirement is that, at constant temperature and pressure, ΔG must be negative, i.e., there is a decrease in Gibbs energy. On the basis of equation, ΔG = ΔH – TΔS, ΔG can be negative if ΔH has sufficiently high negative value as – TΔS is positive. Thus, in an adsorption process, which is spontaneous, a combination of these two factors makes ΔG negative. As the adsorption proceeds, ΔH becomes less and less negative ultimately ΔH becomes equal to TΔS and ΔG becomes zero. At this state equilibrium is attained.

5.1.3 Types of Adsorption

There are mainly two types of adsorption of gases on solids. If accumulation of gas on the surface of a solid occurs on account of weak van der Waals’ forces, the adsorption is termed as physical adsorption or physisorption. When the gas molecules or atoms are held to the solid surface by chemical bonds, the adsorption is termed chemical adsorption or chemisorption. The chemical bonds may be covalent or ionic in nature. Chemisorption involves a high energy of activation and is, therefore, often referred to as activated adsorption. Sometimes these two processes occur simultaneously and it is not easy to ascertain the type of adsorption. A physical adsorption at low temperature may pass into chemisorption as the temperature is increased. For example, dihydrogen is first adsorbed on nickel by vander Waals’ forces. Molecules of hydrogen then dissociate to form hydrogen atoms which are held on the surface by chemisorption.

Some of the important characteristics of both types of adsorption are described below:

Characteristics of physisorption

(i) Lack of specificity: A given surface of an adsorbent does not show any preference for a particular gas as the van der Waals’ forces are universal.

(ii) Nature of adsorbate: The amount of gas adsorbed by a solid depends on the nature of gas. In general, easily liquefiable gases (i.e., with higher critical temperatures) are readily adsorbed as van der Waals’ forces are stronger near the critical temperatures. Thus, 1g of activated charcoal adsorbs more sulphur dioxide (critical temperature 630K), than methane (critical temperature 190K) which is still more than 4.5 mL of dihydrogen (critical temperature 33K).

(iii) Reversible nature: Physical adsorption of a gas by a solid is generally reversible. Thus,
Solid + Gas l Gas/Solid + Heat

More of gas is adsorbed when pressure is increased as the volume of the gas decreases (Le–Chateliers’s principle) and the gas can be removed by decreasing pressure. Since the adsorption process is exothermic, the physical adsorption occurs readily at low temperature and decreases with increasing temperature
(Le-Chatelier’s principle).

(iv) Surface area of adsorbent: The extent of adsorption increases with the increase of surface area of the adsorbent. Thus, finely divided metals and porous substances having large surface areas are good adsorbents.

(v) Enthalpy of adsorption: No doubt, physical adsorption is an exothermic process but its enthalpy of adsorption is quite low (20–40 kJ mol^-1). This is because the attraction between gas molecules and solid surface is only due to weak van der Waals’ forces.

Characteristics of chemisorption

(i) High specificity: Chemisorption is highly specific and it will only occur if there is some possibility of chemical bonding between adsorbent and adsorbate. For example, oxygen is adsorbed on metals by virtue of oxide formation and hydrogen is adsorbed by transition metals due to hydride formation.

(ii) Irreversibility: As chemisorption involves compound formation, it is usually irreversible in nature. Chemisorption is also an exothermic process but the process is very slow at low temperatures on account of high energy of activation. Like most chemical changes, adsorption often increases with rise of temperature. Physisorption of a gas adsorbed at low temperature may change into chemisorption at a high temperature. Usually high pressure is also favourable for chemisorption.

(iii) Surface area: Like physical adsorption, chemisorption also increases with increase of surface area of the adsorbent.

(iv) Enthalpy of adsorption: Enthalpy of chemisorption is high (80-240 kJ mol^-1) as it involves chemical bond formation.

Table 5.1: Comparison of Physisorption and Chemisorption
Physisorption	Chemisorption
1. It arises because of van der Waals’ forces.	1. It is caused by chemical bond formation.
2. It is not specific in nature.	2. It is highly specific in nature.
3. It is reversible in nature.	3. It is irreversible.
4. It depends on the nature of gas. More easily liquefiable gases are adsorbed readily.	4. It also depends on the nature of gas. Gases which can react with the adsorbent show chemisorption.
5. Enthalpy of adsorption is low (20-40 kJ mol^-1 )in this case.	5. Enthalpy of adsorption is high (80-240 kJ mol^-1) in this case.
6. Low temperature is favourable for adsorption. It decreases with increase of temperature	6. High temperature is favouable for absorption. It increases with the increase of temperature.
7. No appreciable activation energy is needed.	7. High activation energy is sometimes needed.
8. It depends on the surface area. It increases with an increase of surface area.	8. It also depends on the surface area. It too increases with an increase of surface area.
9. It results into multimolecular layers on adsorbent surface under high pressure.	9. It results into unimolecular layer.

5.1.4 Adsorption Isotherms

The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure at constant temperature can be expressed by means of a curve termed as adsorption isotherm.

Freundlich adsorption isotherm: Freundlich, in 1909, gave an empirical relationship between the quantity of gas adsorbed by unit mass of solid adsorbent and pressure at a particular temperature. The relationship can be expressed by the following equation:
x/m = k.p^1/n(n>1)………………………(5.1)

where x is the mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent at pressure P, k and n are constants which depend on the nature of the adsorbent and the gas at a particular temperature. The relationship is generally represented in the form of a curve where mass of the gas adsorbed per gram of the adsorbent is plotted against pressure (Fig. 5.1). These curves indicate that at a fixed pressure, there is a decrease in physical adsorption with increase in temperature. These curves always seem to approach saturation at high pressure.
Taking logarithm of eq. (5.1)

log x/m = log k+ 1/n log p………………………..(5.2)

The validity of Freundlich isotherm can beverified by plotting log x/m on y-axis (ordinate) and log P on x-axis (abscissa). If it comes to be a straight line, the Freundlich isotherm is valid, otherwise not (Fig. 5.2). The slope of the straight line gives the value of 1/n. The intercept on the y-axis gives the value of log k.
Freundlich isotherm explains the behaviour of adsorption in an approximate manner. The factor 1/n can have values between 0 and 1 (probable range 0.1 to 0.5). Thus, equation (5.2) holds good over a limited range of pressure. when 1/n = 0,x/m = constant, the adsorption is independent of pressure. When 1/n = 1,x/m = k P, i.e. x/m ∝ P, the adsorption varies directly with pressure. Both the conditions are supported by experimental results. The experimental isotherms always seem to approach saturation at high pressure. This cannot be explained by Freundlich isotherm. Thus, it fails at high pressure.

5.1.5 Adsorption from Solution Phase

Solids can adsorb solutes from solutions also. When a solution of acetic acid in water is shaken with charcoal, a part of the acid is adsorbed by the charcoal and the concentration of the acid decreases in the solution. Similarly, the litmus solution when shaken with charcoal becomes colourless. The precipitate of Mg(OH)₂ attains blue colour when precipitated in presence of magneson reagent. The colour is due to adsorption of magneson. The following observations have been made in the case of adsorption from solution phase:
(i) The extent of adsorption decreases with an increase in temperature.
(ii) The extent of adsorption increases with an increase of surface area of the adsorbent.
(iii) The extent of adsorption depends on the concentration of the solute in solution.
(iv) The extent of adsorption depends on the nature of the adsorbent and the adsorbate.
The precise mechanism of adsorption from solution is not known. Freundlich’s equation approximately describes the behaviour of adsorption from solution with a difference that instead of pressure, concentration of the solution is taken into account, i.e.,
x/m = k C^1/n…………………(5.3)
(C is the equilibrium concentration, i.e., when adsorption is complete).
On taking logarithm of the above equation, we have
logx/m = logk + 1/n logC ……………….(5.4)

Plotting log x/m against log C a straight line is obtained which shows the validity of Freundlich isotherm. This can be tested experimentally by taking solutions of different concentrations of acetic acid. Equal volumes of solutions are added to equal amounts of charcoal in different flasks. The final concentration is determined in each flask after adsorption. The difference in the initial and final concentrations give the value of x. Using the above equation, validity of Freundlich isotherm can be established.

5.1.6 Applications of Adsorption

The phenomenon of adsorption finds a number of applications. Important ones are listed here:
(i) Production of high vacuum: The remaining traces of air can be adsorbed by charcoal from a vessel evacuated by a vacuum pump to give a very high vacuum.
(ii) Gas masks: Gas mask (a device which consists of activated charcoal or mixture of adsorbents) is usually used for breathing in coal mines to adsorb poisonous gases.
(iii) Control of humidity: Silica and aluminium gels are used as adsorbents for removing moisture and controlling humidity.
(iv) Removal of colouring matter from solutions: Animal charcoal removes colours of solutions by adsorbing coloured impurities.
(v) Heterogeneous catalysis: Adsorption of reactants on the solid surface of the catalysts increases the rate of reaction. There are many gaseous reactions of industrial importance involving solid catalysts. Manufacture of ammonia using iron as a catalyst, manufacture of H₂SO₄ by contact process and use of finely divided nickel in the hydrogenation of oils are excellent examples of heterogeneous catalysis.
(vi) Separation of inert gases: Due to the difference in degree of adsorption of gases by charcoal, a mixture of noble gases can be separated by adsorption on coconut charcoal at different temperatures.
(vii) In curing diseases: A number of drugs are used to kill germs by getting adsorbed on them.
(viii) Froth floatation process: A low grade sulphide ore is concentrated by separating it from silica and other earthy matter by this method using pine oil and frothing agent (see Unit 6).
(ix) Adsorption indicators: Surfaces of certain precipitates such as silver halides have the property of adsorbing some dyes like eosin, fluorescein, etc. and thereby producing a characteristic colour at the end point.
(x) Chromatographic analysis: Chromatographic analysis based on the phenomenon of adsorption finds a number of applications in analytical and industrial fields.

Intext Questions
5.1 Write any two characteristics of Chemisorption.
5.2 Why does physisorption decrease with the increase of temperature?
5.3 Why are powdered substances more effective adsorbents than their crystalline forms?

5.2 Catalysis

Potassium chlorate, when heated strongly decomposes slowly giving dioxygen. The decomposition occurs in the temperature range of 653-873K.
2KClO₃ → 2KCl + 3O₂
However, when a little of manganese dioxide is added, the decomposition takes place at a considerably lower temperature range, i.e., 473-633K and also at a much accelerated rate. The added manganese dioxide remains unchanged with respect to its mass and composition. In a similar manner, the rates of a number of chemical reactions can be altered by the mere presence of a foreign substance.

The systematic study of the effect of various foreign substances on the rates of chemical reactions was first made by Berzelius, in 1835. He suggested the term catalyst for such substances. Substances, which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and themselves remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction, are known as catalysts, and the phenomenon is known as catalysis. You have already studied about catalysts and its functioning in Section 4.5.

Promoters and poisons

Promoters are substances that enhance the activity of a catalyst while poisons decrease the activity of a catalyst. For example, in Haber’s process for manufacture of ammonia, molybdenum acts as a promoter for iron which is used as a catalyst.

Catalysis can be broadly divided into two groups:

5.2.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis

(a) Homogeneous catalysis

When the reactants and the catalyst are in the same phase (i.e.,liquid or gas), the process is said to be homogeneous catalysis. The following are some of the examples of homogeneous catalysis:

(i) Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide with dioxygen in the presence of oxides of nitrogen as the catalyst in the lead chamber process.

The reactants, sulphur dioxide and oxygen, and the catalyst, nitric oxide, are all in the same phase.

(ii) Hydrolysis of methyl acetate is catalysed by H⁺ ions furnished by hydrochloric acid.

Both the reactants and the catalyst are in the same phase.

(iii) Hydrolysis of sugar is catalysed by H⁺ ions furnished by sulphuric acid.

Both the reactants and the catalyst are in the same phase.

(b) Heterogeneous catalysis

The catalytic process in which the reactants and the catalyst are in different phases is known as heterogeneous catalysis. Some of the examples of heterogeneous catalysis are given below:

(i) Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide in the presence of Pt.

The reactant is in gaseous state while the catalyst is in the solid state.

(ii) Combination between dinitrogen and dihydrogen to form ammonia in the presence of finely divided iron in Haber’s process.

The reactants are in gaseous state while the catalyst is in the solid state.

(iii) Oxidation of ammonia into nitric oxide in the presence of platinum gauze in Ostwald’s process.

The reactants are in gaseous state while the catalyst is in the solid state.

(iv) Hydrogenation of vegetable oils in the presence of finely divided nickel as catalyst.

One of the reactants is in liquid state and the other in gaseous state while the catalyst is in the solid state.

5.2.2 Adsorption Theory of Heterogeneous Catalysis

This theory explains the mechanism of heterogeneous catalysis. The old theory, known as adsorption theory of catalysis, was that the reactants in gaseous state or in solutions, are adsorbed on the surface of the solid catalyst. The increase in concentration of the reactants on the surface increases the rate of reaction. Adsorption being an exothermic process, the heat of adsorption is utilised in enhancing the rate of the reaction.

The catalytic action can be explained in terms of the intermediate compound formation, the theory of which you have already studied in Section 4.5.1

The modern adsorption theory is the combination of intermediate compound formation theory and the old adsorption theory. The catalytic activity is localised on the surface of the catalyst. The mechanism involves five steps:
(i) Diffusion of reactants to the surface of the catalyst.
(ii) Adsorption of reactant molecules on the surface of the catalyst.
(iii) Occurrence of chemical reaction on the catalyst’s surface through formation of an intermediate (Fig. 5.3).
(iv) Desorption of reaction products from the catalyst surface, and thereby,making the surface available again for more reaction to occur.
(v) Diffusion of reaction products away from the catalyst’s surface.
The surface of the catalyst unlike the inner part of the bulk, has free valencies which provide the seat for chemical forces of attraction. When a gas comes in contact with such a surface, its molecules are held up there due to loose chemical combination. If different molecules are adsorbed side by side, they may react with each other resulting in the formation of new molecules. Thus, formed molecules may evaporate leaving the surface for the fresh reactant molecules.

This theory explains why the catalyst remains unchanged in mass and chemical composition at the end of the reaction and is effective even in small quantities. It however, does not explain the action of catalytic promoters and catalytic poisons.

Important features of solid catalysts

(a) Activity

The activity of a catalyst depends upon the strength of chemisorption to a large extent. The reactants must get adsorbed reasonably strongly on to the catalyst to become active. However, they must not get adsorbed so strongly that they are immobilised and other reactants are left with no space on the catalyst’s surface for adsorption. It has been found that for hydrogenation reaction, the catalytic activity increases from Group 5 to Group 11 metals with maximum activity being shown by groups 7-9 elements of the periodic table (Class XI, Unit 3).

(b) Selectivity

The selectivity of a catalyst is its ability to direct a reaction to yield a particular product. For example, starting with H₂ and CO, and using different catalysts, we get different products.

Thus, it can be inferred that the action of a catalyst is highly selective in nature, i.e., a given substance can act as a catalyst only in a particular reaction and not for all the reactions. It means that a substance which acts as a catalyst in one reaction may fail to catalyse another reaction.

5.2.3 Shape- Selective Catalysis by Zeolites

The catalytic reaction that depends upon the pore structure of the catalyst and the size of the reactant and product molecules is called shape-selective catalysis. Zeolites are good shape-selective catalysts because of their honeycomb-like structures. They are microporous aluminosilicates with three dimensional network of silicates in which some silicon atoms are replaced by aluminium atoms giving Al–O–Si framework. The reactions taking place in zeolites depend upon the size and shape of reactant and product molecules as well as upon the pores and cavities of the zeolites. They are found in nature as well as synthesised for catalytic selectivity.

Zeolites are being very widely used as catalysts in petrochemical industries for cracking of hydrocarbons and isomerisation. An important zeolite catalyst used in the petroleum industry is ZSM-5. It converts alcohols directly into gasoline (petrol) by dehydrating them to give a mixture of hydrocarbons.

5.2.4 Enzyme Catalysis

Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which are produced by living plants and animals. They are actually protein molecules of high molecular mass and form colloidal solutions in water. They are very effective catalysts; catalyse numerous reactions, especially those connected with natural processes. Numerous reactions that occur in the bodies of animals and plants to maintain the life process are catalysed by enzymes. The enzymes are, thus, termed as biochemical catalysts and the phenomenon is known as biochemical catalysis. Many enzymes have been obtained in pure crystalline state from living cells. However, the first enzyme was synthesised in the laboratory in 1969.
The following are some of the examples of enzyme-catalysed reactions:
(i) Inversion of cane sugar: The invertase enzyme converts cane sugar into glucose and fructose.

(ii) Conversion of glucose into ethyl alcohol: The zymase enzyme converts glucose into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide.

(iii) Conversion of starch into maltose: The diastase enzyme converts starch into maltose.

(iv) Conversion of maltose into glucose: The maltase enzyme converts maltose into glucose.

(v) Decomposition of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide: The enzyme urease catalyses this decomposition.

(vi) In stomach, the pepsin enzyme converts proteins into peptides while in intestine, the pancreatic trypsin converts proteins into amino acids by hydrolysis.

(vii) Conversion of milk into curd: It is an enzymatic reaction brought about by lacto bacilli enzyme present in curd.

Table 5.2: Some Enzymatic Reactions
Enzyme	Source	Enzymatic Reactions
Invertase	yeast	Sucrose → Glucose and fructose
Zymase	Yeast	Starch → Maltose
Diastase	Malt	Starch → Maltose
Maltase	Yeast	Maltose → Glucose
Urease	Soyabean	Urea rarr; Ammonia and carbon dioxide
pepsin	Stomach	Proteins → Amino acids

Characteristics of enzyme catalysis

Enzyme catalysis is unique in its efficiency and high degree of specificity.
The following characteristics are exhibited by enzyme catalysts:
(i) Most highly efficient: One molecule of an enzyme may transform one million molecules of the reactant per minute.
(ii) Highly specific nature: Each enzyme is specific for a given reaction, i.e., one catalyst cannot catalyse more than one reaction. For example, the enzyme urease catalyses the hydrolysis of urea only. It does not catalyse hydrolysis of any other amide.
(iii) Highly active under optimum temperature: The rate of an enzyme reaction becomes maximum at a definite temperature, called the optimum temperature. On either side of the optimum temperature, the enzyme activity decreases. The optimum temperature range for enzymatic activity is 298-310K. Human body temperature being 310 K is suited for enzyme-catalysed reactions.
(iv) Highly active under optimum pH: The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction is maximum at a particular pH called optimum pH, which is between pH values 5-7.
(v) Increasing activity in presence of activators and co-enzymes: The enzymatic activity is increased in the presence of certain substances, known as co-enzymes. It has been observed that when a small non-protein (vitamin) is present along with an enzyme, the catalytic activity is enhanced considerably. Activators are generally metal ions such as Na⁺, Mn²⁺, Co²⁺, Cu²⁺, etc. These metal ions, when weakly bonded to enzyme molecules, increase their catalytic activity. Amylase in presence of sodium chloride i.e., Na⁺ ions are catalytically very active.
(vi) Influence of inhibitors and poisons: Like ordinary catalysts, enzymes are also inhibited or poisoned by the presence of certain substances. The inhibitors or poisons interact with the active functional groups on the enzyme surface and often reduce or completely destroy the catalytic activity of the enzymes. The use of many drugs is related to their action as enzyme inhibitors in the body.

Mechanism of enzyme catalysis

There are a number of cavities present on the surface of colloidal particles of enzymes. These cavities are of characteristic shape and possess active groups such as -NH₂, -COOH, -SH, -OH, etc. These are actually the active centers on the surface of enzyme particles. The molecules of the reactant (substrate), which have complementary shape, fit into these cavities just like a key fits into a lock. On account of the presence of Products active groups, an activated complex is formed which then decomposes to yield the products.
Thus, the enzyme-catalysed reactions may be considered to proceed in two steps.

Step 1: Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex.
E + S → ES^≠

Step 2: Decomposition of the activated complex to form product
ES^≠→E + S

5.2.5 Catalysts in Industry

Some of the important technical catalytic processes are listed in Table 5.3 to give an idea about the utility of catalysts in industries.

Table 5.3: Some Industrial Catalytic Processes
Process	Catalyst
1.Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) → 2NH₃(g)	Finely divided iron, molybdenum as promoter; conditions: 200 bar pressure and 723-773K temperature. Now-a-days, a mixture of iron oxide, potassium oxide and alumina is used.
2. Ostwald’s process for the manufacture of nitric acid. 4NH₃(g) + 5O₂(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H₂O(g) 2NO(g) + O₂(g) → 2NO₂(g) 4NO₂(g) + 2H₂O(l) + O₂(g) → 4HNO₃(aq)	Platinised asbestos; temperature 573K.
3. Contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. 2SO₂(g) + O₂(g) → 2SO₃(g) SO₃(g) + H₂SO₄(aq) → H₂S₂O₇(l) oleum H₂S₂O₇(l) + H₂O(l) → 2H₂SO₄(aq)	Platinised asbestos or vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅);temperature 673-723K.

Intext Question

5.4 In Haber’s process, hydrogen is obtained by reacting methane with steam in presence of NiO as catalyst. The process is known as steam reforming. Why is
it necessary to remove CO when ammonia is obtained by Haber’s process?
5.5 Why is the ester hydrolysis slow in the beginning and becomes faster after sometime?
5.6 What is the role of desorption in the process of catalysis.

5.3 Colloids

We have learnt in Unit 2 that solutions are homogeneous systems. We also know that sand in water when stirred gives a suspension, which slowly settles down with time. Between the two extremes of suspensions and solutions we come across a large group of systems called colloidal dispersions or simply colloids.

A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which one substance is dispersed (dispersed phase) as very fine particles in another substance called dispersion medium.

The essential difference between a solution and a colloid is that of particle size. While in a solution, the constituent particles are ions or small molecules, in a colloid, the dispersed phase may consist of particles of a single macromolecule (such as protein or synthetic polymer) or an aggregate of many atoms, ions or molecules. Colloidal particles are larger than simple molecules but small enough to remain suspended. Their range of diameters is between 1 and 1000 nm (10^–9 to 10^–6 m).

Colloidal particles have an enormous surface area per unit mass as a result of their small size. Consider a cube with 1 cm side. It has a total surface area of 6 cm². If it were divided equally into 10¹² cubes, the cubes would be the size of large colloidal particles and have a total surface area of 60,000 cm² or 6 m². This enormous surface area leads to some special properties of colloids to be discussed later in this Unit.

5.4 Classification of colloids

Colloids are classified on the basis of the following criteria:
(i) Physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium
(ii) Nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium
(iii) Type of particles of the dispersed phase.

5.4.1 Classification Based on Physical State of Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium

Depending upon whether the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are solids, liquids or gases, eight types of colloidal systems are possible. A gas mixed with another gas forms a homogeneous mixture and hence is not a colloidal system. The examples of the various types of colloids along with their typical names are listed in Table 5.4.

Table 5.1: Comparison of Physisorption and Chemisorption
Dispersed phase	Dispersion medium	Type of collide	Examples
Solid	Solid	Solid Sol	Some colored glasses and gem stones
Solid	Liquid	Sol	paints , cell fluids
Solid	Gas	Aerosol	Smoke, dust
LiQuid	Solid	Gel	Cheese, butter, jellies
Liquid	Liquid	Emulsion	Milk , hair cream
Liquid	Gas	Aerosol	Fog, Mist, Cloud, insecticide sprays
Gas	Solid	Solid Sol	Pumice Stone, Foam Rubber
Gas	Liquid	Foam	Froth, whipped cream, soap lather

Many familiar commercial products and natural objects are colloids. For example, whipped cream is a foam, which is a gas dispersed in a liquid. Firefighting foams, used at emergency airplane landings are also colloidal systems. Most biological fluids are aqueous sols (solids dispersed in water). Within a typical cell, proteins and nucleic acids are colloidal-sized particles dispersed in an aqueous solution of ions and small molecules.

Out of the various types of colloids given in Table 5.4, the most common are sols (solids in liquids), gels (liquids in solids) and emulsions (liquids in liquids). However, in the present Unit, we shall take up discussion of the ‘sols’ and ‘emulsions’ only. Further, it may be mentioned that if the dispersion medium is water, the sol is called aquasol or hydrosol and if the dispersion medium is alcohol, it is called alcosol and so on.

5.4.2 Classification Based on Nature of Interaction between Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium

Depending upon the nature of interaction between the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium, colloidal sols are divided into two categories, namely, lyophilic (solvent attracting) and lyophobic (solvent repelling). If water is the dispersion medium, the terms used are hydrophilic and hydrophobic.

(i) Lyophilic colloids: The word ‘lyophilic’ means liquid-loving. Colloidal sols directly formed by mixing substances like gum, gelatine, starch, rubber, etc., with a suitable liquid (the dispersion medium) are called lyophilic sols. An important characteristic of these sols is that if the dispersion medium is separated from the dispersed phase (say by evaporation), the sol can be reconstituted by simply remixing with the dispersion medium. That is why these sols are also called reversible sols. Furthermore, these sols are quite stable and cannot be easily coagulated as discussed later.

(ii) Lyophobic colloids: The word ‘lyophobic’ means liquid-hating. Substances like metals, their sulphides, etc., when simply mixed with the dispersion medium do not form the colloidal sol. Their colloidal sols can be prepared only by special methods (as discussed later). Such sols are called lyophobic sols. These sols are readily precipitated (or coagulated) on the addition of small amounts of electrolytes, by heating or by shaking and hence, are not stable. Further, once precipitated, they do not give back the colloidal sol by simple addition of the dispersion medium. Hence, these sols are also called irreversible sols. Lyophobic sols need stabilising agents for their preservation.

5.4.3 Classification Based on Type of Particles of the Dispersed Phase, Multimolecular, Macromolecular and Associated Colloids

Depending upon the type of the particles of the dispersed phase, colloids are classified as: multimolecular, macromolecular and associated colloids.

(i) Multimolecular colloids: On dissolution, a large number of atoms or smaller molecules of a substance aggregate together to form species having size in the colloidal range (diameter<1nm). The species thus formed are called multimolecular colloids. For example, a gold sol may contain particles of various sizes having
many atoms. Sulphur sol consists of particles containing a thousand or more of S8 sulphur molecules.

(ii) Macromolecular colloids: Macromolecules (Unit 15) in suitable solvents form solutions in which the size of the macromolecules may be in the colloidal range. Such systems are called macromolecular colloids. These colloids are quite stable and resemble true solutions in many respects. Examples of naturally occurring macromolecules are starch, cellulose, proteins and enzymes; and those of man-made macromolecules are polythene, nylon, polystyrene, synthetic rubber, etc.

(iii) Associated colloids (Micelles): There are some substances which at low concentrations behave as normal strong electrolytes, but at higher concentrations exhibit colloidal behaviour due to the formation of aggregates. The aggregated particles thus formed are called micelles. These are also known as associated colloids. The formation of micelles takes place only above a particular temperature called Kraft temperature (Tk) and above a particular concentration called critical micelle concentration (CMC). On dilution, these colloids revert back to individual ions. Surface active agents such as soaps and synthetic detergents belong to this class. For soaps, the CMC is 10^–4 to 10^–3 mol L^–1. These colloids have both lyophobic and lyophilic parts. Micelles may contain as many as 100 molecules or more.

Mechanism of micelle formation

Let us take the example of soap solutions. Soap is sodium or potassium salt of a higher fatty acid and may be represented as RCOO^–Na⁺ (e.g., sodium stearate CH₃(CH₂)₁₆COO^–Na⁺, which is a major component of many bar soaps). When dissolved in water, it dissociates into RCOO^– and Na⁺ ions. The RCOO^– ions, however, consist of two parts — a long hydrocarbon chain R (also called non-polar ‘tail’) which is hydrophobic (water repelling), and a polar group COO^– (also called polar-ionic ‘head’), which is hydrophilic (water loving).

The RCOO^– ions are, therefore, present on the surface with their COO^– groups in water and the hydrocarbon chains R staying away from it and remain at the surface. But at critical micelle concentration, the anions are pulled into the bulk of the solution and aggregate to form a spherical shape with their hydrocarbon chains pointing towards the centre of the sphere with COO⁻ part remaining outward on the surface of the sphere. An aggregate of water at low concentrations of soap thus formed is known as ‘ionic micelle’. These micelles may contain as many as 100 such ions.

Similarly, in case of detergents, e.g., sodium laurylsulphate, CH₃(CH₂)₁₁SO₄^–Na⁺, the polar group is –SO₄^– along with the long hydrocarbon chain. Hence, the mechanism of micelle formation here also is same as that of soaps.

Cleansing action of soaps

It has been mentioned earlier that a micelle consists of a hydrophobic hydrocarbon – like central core. The cleansing action of soap is due to the fact that soap molecules form micelle around the oil droplet in such a way that hydrophobic part of the stearate ions is in the oil droplet and hydrophilic part projects out of the grease droplet like the bristles (Fig. 5.7). Since the polar groups can interact with water, the oil droplet surrounded by stearate ions is now pulled in water and removed from the dirty surface. Thus soap helps in emulsification and washing away of oils and fats. The negatively charged sheath around the globules prevents them from coming together and forming aggregates.

5.4.4 Preparation of Colloids

A few important methods for the preparation of colloids are as follows:
(a) Chemical methods

Colloidal solutions can be prepared by chemical reactions leading to formation of molecules by double decomposition, oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis. These molecules then aggregate leading to formation of sols.

(b) Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method

This process involves dispersion as well as condensation. Colloidal sols of metals such as gold, silver, platinum, etc., can be prepared by this method. In this method, electric arc is struck between electrodes of the metal immersed in the dispersion medium (Fig. 5.8). The intense heat produced vapourises the metal, which then condenses to form particles of colloidal size.

Peptization may be defined as the process of converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with dispersion medium in the presence a small amount of electrolyte. The electrolyte used for this purpose is called peptizing agent. This method is applied, generally, to convert a freshly prepared precipitate into a colloidal sol. During peptization, the precipitate adsorbs one of the ions of the electrolyte on its surface. This causes the development of positive or negative charge on precipitates, which ultimately break up into smaller particles of the size of a colloid.

5.4.5 Purification of Colloidal Solutions
Colloidal solutions when prepared, generally contain excessive amount of electrolytes and some other soluble impurities. While the presence of traces of electrolyte is essential for the stability of the colloidal solution, larger quantities coagulate it. It is, therefore, necessary to reduce the concentration of these soluble impurities to a requisite minimum. The process used for reducing the amount of impurities to a requisite minimum is known as purification of colloidal solution. The purification of colloidal solution is carried out by the following mehods:

(i) Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a colloidal solution by means of diffusion through a suitable membrane. Since particles (ions or smaller molecules) in a true solution can pass through animal membrane (bladder) or parchment paper or cellophane sheet but not the colloidal particles, the membrane can be used for dialysis. The apparatus used for this purpose is called dialyser. A bag of suitable membrane containing the colloidal solution is suspended in a vessel through which fresh water is continuously flowing (Fig. 5.9). The molecules and ions diffuse through membrane into the outer water and pure colloidal solution is left behind.

(ii) Electro-dialysis: Ordinarily, the process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be made faster by applying an electric field if the dissolved substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an electrolyte. The process is then named electrodialysis. The colloidal solution is placed in a bag of suitable membrane while pure water is taken outside. Electrodes are fitted in the compartment as shown in Fig. 5.10. The ions present in the colloidal solution migrate out to the oppositely charged electrodes.

(iii) Ultrafiltration: Ultrafiltration is the process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent and soluble solutes present in the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are permeable to all substances except the colloidal particles. Colloidal particles can pass through ordinary filter paper because the pores are too large. However, the pores of filter paper can be reduced in size by impregnating with colloidion solution to stop the flow of colloidal particles. The usual colloidion is a 4% solution of nitro- cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. An ultra-filter paper may be prepared by soaking the filter paper in a colloidion solution, hardening by formaldehyde and then finally drying it. Thus, by using ultra-filter paper, the colloidal particles are separated from rest of the materials. Ultrafiltration is a slow process. To speed up the process, pressure or suction is applied. The colloidal particles left on the ultra-filter paper are then stirred with fresh dispersion medium (solvent) to get a pure colloidal solution.

5.4.6 Properties of Colloidal Solutions

Various properties exhibited by the colloidal solutions are described below:

(i) Colligative properties: Colloidal particles being bigger aggregates, the number of particles in a colloidal solution is comparatively small as compared to a true solution. Hence, the values of colligative properties (osmotic pressure, lowering in vapour pressure, depression in freezing point and elevation in boiling point) are of small order as compared to values shown by true solutions at same concentrations.

(ii) Tyndall effect: If a homogeneous solution placed in dark is observed in the direction of light, it appears clear and, if it is observed from a direction at right angles to the direction of light beam, it appears perfectly dark. Colloidal solutions viewed in the same way may also appear reasonably clear or translucent by the transmitted light but Scattered light they show a mild to strong opalescence, when viewed at right angles to the passage of light, i.e., the path of the beam is illuminated by a bluish light. This effect was first observed by Faraday and later studied in detail by Tyndall and is termed as Tyndall effect. The bright cone of the light is called Tyndall cone (Fig. 5.11). The Tyndall effect is due to the fact that colloidal particles scatter light in all directions in space. This scattering of light illuminates the path of beam in the colloidal dispersion.
Tyndall effect can be observed during the projection of picture in the cinema hall due to scattering of light by dust and smoke particles present there. Tyndall effect is observed only when the following two conditions are satisfied.

(i) The diameter of the dispersed particles is not much smaller than the wavelength of the light used; and
(ii) The refractive indices of the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium differ greatly in magnitude.

Tyndall effect is used to distinguish between a colloidal and true solution. Zsigmondy, in 1903, used Tyndall effect to set up an apparatus known as ultramicroscope. An intense beam of light is focussed on the colloidal solution contained in a glass vessel. The focus of the light is then observed with a microscope at right angles to the beam. Individual colloidal particles appear as bright stars against a dark background. Ultramicroscope does not render the actual colloidal particles visible but only observe the light scattered by them. Thus, ultramicroscope does not provide any information about the size and
shape of colloidal particles.

(iii) Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends on the wavelength of light scattered by the dispersed particles. The wavelength of light further depends on the size and nature of the particles. The colour of colloidal solution also changes with the manner in which the observer receives the light. For example, a mixture of milk and water appears blue when viewed by the reflected light and red when viewed by the transmitted light. Finest gold sol is red in colour; as the size of particles increases, it appears purple, then blue and finally golden.

(iv) Brownian movement: When colloidal solutions are viewed under a powerful ultramicroscope, the colloidal particles appear to be in a state of continuous zig-zag motion all over the field of view. This motion was first observed by the British botanist, Robert Brown, and is known as Brownian movement (Fig. 5.12). This motion is independent of the nature of the colloid but depends on the size of the particles and viscosity of the solution. Smaller the size and lesser the viscosity, faster is the motion.

The Brownian movement has been explained to be due to the unbalanced bombardment of the particles by the molecules of the dispersion medium. The Brownian movement has a stirring effect which does not permit the particles to settle and thus, is responsible for the stability of sols.

(v) Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge. The nature of this charge is the same on all the particles in a given colloidal solution and may be either positive or negative. A list of some common sols with the nature of charge on their particles is given below:

Positively charged sols	Negatively charged sols
Hydrated metallic oxides, e.g., Al₂O₃.xH₂O, CrO₃.xH₂O and Fe₂O₃.xH₂O, etc.	Metals, e.g., copper, silver,gold sols.
Basic dye stuffs, e.g., methylene blue sol.	Metallic sulphides, e.g., As₂S3, Sb₂S₃, CdS sols.
Haemoglobin (blood)	Acid dye stuffs, e.g., eosin, congo red sols.
Oxides, e.g., TiO₂ sol.	Sols of starch, gum, gelatin, clay, charcoal, etc.

The charge on the sol particles is due to one or more reasons, viz., due to electron capture by sol particles during electrodispersion of metals, due to preferential adsorption of ions from solution and/or due to formulation of electrical double layer.

Preferential adsorption of ions is the most accepted reason. The sol particles acquire positive or negative charge by preferential adsorption of +ve or –ve ions. When two or more ions are present in the dispersion medium, preferential adsorption of the ion common to the colloidal particle usually takes place. This can be explained by taking the following examples:

(a) When silver nitrate solution is added to potassium iodide solution, the precipitated silver iodide adsorbs iodide ions from the dispersion medium and negatively charged colloidal solution results. However, when KI solution is added to AgNO₃ solution, positively charged sol results due to adsorption of Ag⁺ ions from dispersion medium.
AgI/I^– AgI/Ag⁺
Negatively charged Positively charged

(b) If FeCl₃ is added to excess of hot water, a positively charged sol of hydrated ferric oxide is formed due to adsorption of Fe³⁺ ions. However, when ferric chloride is added to NaOH a negatively charged sol is obtained with adsorption of OH^– ions.

Fe₂O₃.xH₂O/Fe³⁺ Fe₂O₃.xH₂O/OH^–
Positively charged Negatively charged
Having acquired a positive or a negative charge by selective adsorption on the surface of a colloidal particle as stated above, this layer attracts counter ions from the medium forming a second layer, as shown below.

AgI/I^– K⁺ AgI/Ag⁺I^–
The combination of the two layers of opposite charges around the colloidal particle is called Helmholtz electrical double layer. According to modern views, the first layer of ions is firmly held and is termed fixed layer while the second layer is mobile which is termed diffused layer. Since separation of charge is a seat of potential, the charges of opposite signs on the fixed and diffused parts of the double layer results in a difference in potential between these layers. This potential difference between the fixed layer and the diffused layer of opposite charges is called the electrokinetic potential or zeta potential. The presence of equal and similar charges on colloidal particles is largely responsible in providing stability to the colloidal solution, because the repulsive forces between charged particles having same charge prevent them from coalescing or aggregating when they come closer to one another.

(vi) Electrophoresis: The existence of charge on colloidal particles is confirmed by electrophoresis experiment. When electric potential is applied across two platinum electrodes dipping in a colloidal solution, the colloidal particles move towards one or the other electrode. The movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric potential is called electrophoresis. Positively charged particles move towards the cathode while negatively charged particles move towards the anode. This can be demonstrated by the following experimental set- up (Fig. 5.13).

When electrophoresis, i.e., movement of particles is prevented by some suitable means, it is observed that the dispersion medium begins to move in an electric field. This phenomenon is termed electroosmosis.

(vii) Coagulation or precipitation: The stability of the lyophobic sols is due to the presence of charge on colloidal particles. If, somehow, the charge is removed, the particles will come nearer to each other to form aggregates (or coagulate) and settle down under the force of gravity.

The process of settling of colloidal particles is called coagulation or precipitation of the sol.
The coagulation of the lyophobic sols can be carried out in the following ways:
(i) By electrophoresis: The colloidal particles move towards oppositely charged electrodes, get discharged and precipitated.
(ii) By mixing two oppositely charged sols: Oppositely charged sols when mixed in almost equal proportions, neutralise their charges and get partially or completely precipitated. Mixing of hydrated ferric oxide (+ve sol) and arsenious sulphide (–ve sol) bring them in the precipitated forms. This type of coagulation is called mutual coagulation.
(iii) By boiling: When a sol is boiled, the adsorbed layer is disturbed due to increased collisions with the molecules of dispersion medium. This reduces the charge on the particles and ultimately lead to settling down in the form of a precipitate.
(iv) By persistent dialysis: On prolonged dialysis, traces of the electrolyte present in the sol are removed almost completely and the colloids become unstable and ultimately coagulate.
(v) By addition of electrolytes: When excess of an electrolyte is added, the colloidal particles are precipitated. The reason is that colloids interact with ions carrying charge opposite to that present on themselves. This causes neutralisation leading to their coagulation. The ion responsible for neutralisation of charge on the particles is called the coagulating ion. A negative ion causes the precipitation of positively charged sol and vice versa.
It has been observed that, generally, the greater the valence of the flocculating ion added, the greater is its power to cause precipitation. This is known as Hardy-Schulze rule. In the coagulation of a negative sol, the flocculating power is in the order: Al³⁺Ba²⁺>Na⁺
Similarly, in the coagulation of a positive sol, the flocculating power is in the order: [Fe(CN)₆]^4– > PO₄^3– > SO₄^2– > Cl^–
The minimum concentration of an electrolyte in millimoles per litre required to cause precipitation of a sol in two hours is called coagulating value. The smaller the quantity needed, the higher will be the coagulating power of an ion.

Coagulation of lyophilic sols

There are two factors which are responsible for the stability of lyophilic sols. These factors are the charge and solvation of the colloidal particles. When these two factors are removed, a lyophilic sol can be coagulated. This is done (i) by adding an electrolyte and (ii) by adding a suitable solvent. When solvents such as alcohol and acetone are added to hydrophilic sols, the dehydration of dispersed phase occurs. Under this condition, a small quantity of electrolyte can bring about coagulation.

Protection of colloids

Lyophilic sols are more stable than lyophobic sols. This is due to the fact that lyophilic colloids are extensively solvated, i.e., colloidal particles are covered by a sheath of the liquid in which they are dispersed.

Lyophilic colloids have a unique property of protecting lyophobic colloids. When a lyophilic sol is added to the lyophobic sol, the lyophilic particles form a layer around lyophobic particles and thus protect the latter from electrolytes. Lyophilic colloids used for this purpose are called protective colloids.

5.5 Emulsions

These are liquid-liquid colloidal systems, i.e., the dispersion of finely divided droplets in another liquid. If a mixture of two immiscible or partially miscible liquids is shaken, a coarse dispersion of one liquid in the other is obtained which is called emulsion. Generally, one of the two liquids is water. There are two types of emulsions.
(i) Oil dispersed in water (O/W type) and
(ii) Water dispersed in oil (W/O type).
In the first system, water acts as dispersion medium. Examples of this type of Oil in water Water in oil emulsion are milk and vanishing cream. Milk, liquid fat is dispersed in water. In the second system, oil acts as dispersion medium. Common examples of this type are butter and cream.

Emulsions of oil in water are unstable and sometimes they separate into two layers on standing. For stabilisation of an emulsion, a third component called emulsifying agent is usually added. The emulsifying agent forms an interfacial film between suspended particles and the medium. The principal emulsifying agents for O/W emulsions are proteins, gums, natural and synthetic soaps, etc., and for W/O, heavy metal salts of fatty acids, long chain alcohols, lampblack, etc.

Emulsions can be diluted with any amount of the dispersion medium. On the other hand, the dispersed liquid when mixed, forms a separate layer. The droplets in emulsions are often negatively charged and can be precipitated by electrolytes. They also show Brownian movement and Tyndall effect. Emulsions can be broken into constituent liquids by heating, freezing, centrifuging, etc.

5.6 Colliods Around Us

Most of the substances, we come across in our daily life, are colloids. The meals we eat, the clothes we wear, the wooden furniture we use, the houses we live in, the newspapers we read, are largely composed of colloids.
Following are the interesting and noteworthy examples of colloids:

(i) Blue colour of the sky: Dust particles along with water suspended in air scatter blue light which reaches our eyes and the sky looks blue to us.

(ii) Fog, mist and rain: When a large mass of air containing dust particles, is cooled below its dewpoint, the moisture from the air condenses on the surfaces of these particles forming fine droplets. These droplets being colloidal in nature continue to float in air in the form of mist or fog. Clouds are aerosols having small droplets of water suspended in air. On account of condensation in the upper atmosphere, the colloidal droplets of water grow bigger and bigger in size, till they come down in the form of rain. Sometimes, the rainfall occurs when two oppositely charged clouds meet.

It is possible to cause artificial rain by throwing electrified sand or spraying a sol carrying charge opposite to the one on clouds from an aeroplane.

(iii) Food articles: Milk, butter, halwa, ice creams, fruit juices, etc., are all colloids in one form or the other.

(iv) Blood: It is a colloidal solution of an albuminoid substance. The styptic action of alum and ferric chloride solution is due to coagulation of blood forming a clot which stops further bleeding.

(v) Soils: Fertile soils are colloidal in nature in which humus acts as a protective colloid. On account of colloidal nature, soils adsorb moisture and nourishing materials.

(vi) Formation of delta: River water is a colloidal solution of clay. Sea water contains a number of electrolytes. When river water meets the sea water, the electrolytes present in sea water coagulate the colloidal solution of clay resulting in its deposition with the formation of delta.

Applications of colloids

Colloids are widely used in the industry. Following are some examples:
(i) Electrical precipitation of smoke: Smoke is a colloidal solution of solid particles such as carbon, arsenic compounds, dust, etc., in air. The smoke, before it comes out from the chimney, is led through a chamber containing plates having a charge opposite to that carried by smoke particles. The particles on coming in contact with these plates lose their charge and get precipitated. The particles thus settle down on the floor of the chamber. The precipitator is called Cottrell precipitator (Fig.5.15).

(ii) Purification of drinking water: The water obtained from natual sources often contains suspended impurities. Alum is added to such water to coagulate the suspended impurities and make water fit for drinking purposes.

(iii) Medicines: Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature. For example, argyrol is a silver sol used as an eye lotion. Colloidal antimony is used in curing kalaazar. Colloidal gold is used for intramuscular injection. Milk of magnesia, an emulsion, is used for stomach disorders. Colloidal medicines are more effective because they have large surface area and are therefore easily assimilated.

(iv) Tanning: Animal hides are colloidal in nature. When a hide, which has positively charged particles, is soaked in tannin, which contains negatively charged colloidal particles, mutual coagulation takes place. This results in the hardening of leather. This process is termed as tanning. Chromium salts are also used in place of tannin.

(v) Cleansing action of soaps and detergents: This has already been described in Section 5.4.3.

(vi) Photographic plates and films: Photographic plates or films are prepared by coating an emulsion of the light sensitive silver bromide in gelatin over glass plates or celluloid films.

(vii) Rubber industry: Latex is a colloidal solution of rubber particles which are negatively charged. Rubber is obtained by coagulation of latex.

(viii) Industrial products: Paints, inks, synthetic plastics, rubber, graphite lubricants, cement, etc., are all colloidal solutions.

Intext Questions
5.7 What modification can you suggest in the Hardy Schulze law?
5.8 Why is it essential to wash the precipitate with water before estimating it quantitatively?

Summary

Adsorption is the phenomenon of attracting and retaining the molecules of a substance on the surface of a solid resulting into a higher concentration on the surface than in the bulk. The substance adsorbed is known as adsorbate and the substance on which adsorption takes place is called adsorbent. In physisorption, adsorbate is held to the adsorbent by weak van der Waals forces, and in chemisorption, adsorbate is held to the adsorbent by strong chemical bond. Almost all solids adsorb gases. The extent of adsorption of a gas on a solid depends upon nature of gas, nature of solid, surface area of the solid, pressure of gas and temperature of gas. The relationship between the extent of adsorption (x/m) and pressure of the gas at constant temperature is known as adsorption isotherm.

A catalyst is a substance which enhances the rate of a chemical reaction without itself getting used up in the reaction. The phenomenon using catalyst is known as catalysis. In homogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is in the same phase as are the reactants, and in heterogeneous catalysis the catalyst is in a different phase from that of the reactants.

Colloidal solutions are intermediate between true solutions and suspensions. The size of the colloidal particles range from 1 to 1000 nm. A colloidal system consists of two phases – the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium. Colloidal systems are classified in three ways depending upon (i) physical states of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium (ii) nature of interaction between the dispersed phase and dispersion medium and (iii) nature of particles of dispersed phase. The colloidal systems show interesting optical, mechanical and electrical properties. The process of changing the colloidal particles in a sol into the insoluble precipitate by addition of some suitable electrolytes is known as coagulation. Emulsions are colloidal systems in which both dispersed phase and dispersion medium are liquids. These can be of: (i) oil in water type and (ii) water in oil type. The process of making emulsion is known as emulsification. To stabilise an emulsion, an emulsifying agent or emulsifier is added. Soaps and detergents are most frequently used as emulsifiers. Colloids find several applications in industry as well as in daily life.

Exercise
5.1 Distinguish between the meaning of the terms adsorption and absorption. Give one example of each.
5.2 What is the difference between physisorption and chemisorption?
5.3 Give reason why a finely divided substance is more effective as an adsorbent.
5.4 What are the factors which influence the adsorption of a gas on a solid?
5.5 What is an adsorption isotherm? Describe Freundlich adsorption isotherm.
5.6 What do you understand by activation of adsorbent? How is it achieved?
5.7 What role does adsorption play in heterogeneous catalysis?
5.8 Why is adsorption always exothermic ?
5.9 How are the colloidal solutions classified on the basis of physical states of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium?
5.10 Discuss the effect of pressure and temperature on the adsorption of gases on solids.
5.11 What are lyophilic and lyophobic sols? Give one example of each type. Why are hydrophobic sols easily coagulated ?
5.12 What is the difference between multimolecular and macromolecular colloids? Give one example of each. How are associated colloids different from these two types of colloids?
5.13 What are enzymes ? Write in brief the mechanism of enzyme catalysis.
5.14 How are colloids classified on the basis of
(i) physical states of components
(ii) nature of dispersion medium and
(iii) interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium?
5.15 Explain what is observed
(i) when a beam of light is passed through a colloidal sol.
(ii) an electrolyte, NaCl is added to hydrated ferric oxide sol.
(iii) electric current is passed through a colloidal sol?
5.16 What are emulsions? What are their different types? Give example of each type.
5.17 What is demulsification? Name two demulsifiers.
5.18 Action of soap is due to emulsification and micelle formation. Comment.
5.19 Give four examples of heterogeneous catalysis.
5.20 What do you mean by activity and selectivity of catalysts?
5.21 Describe some features of catalysis by zeolites.
5.22 What is shape selective catalysis?
5.23 Explain the following terms:
(i) Electrophoresis (ii) Coagulation (iii) Dialysis (iv) Tyndall effect.
5.24 Give four uses of emulsions.
5.25 What are micelles? Give an example of a micellers system.
5.26 Explain the terms with suitable examples:
(i) Alcosol (ii) Aerosol (iii) Hydrosol.
5.27 Comment on the statement that “colloid is not a substance but a state of substance”.

I. Multiple Choice Questions (Type-I)

1. Which of the following process does not occur at the interface of phases?

(i) crystallisation
(ii) heterogenous catalysis
(iii) homogeneous catalysis
(iv) corrosion

2. At the equilibrium position in the process of adsorption ___________.

(i) ΔH > 0
(ii) ΔH = TΔS
(iii) ΔH > TΔS
(iv) ΔH < TΔS

3. Which of the following interface cannot be obtained?

(i) liquid-liquid
(ii) solid-liquid
(iii) liquid-gas
(iv) gas-gas

4. The term ‘sorption’ stands for ____________.

(i) absorption
(ii) adsorption
(iii) both absorption and adsorption
(iv) desorption

5. Extent of physisorption of a gas increases with ___________.

(i) increase in temperature.
(ii) decrease in temperature.
(iii) decrease in surface area of adsorbent.
(iv) decrease in strength of van der Waals forces.

6. Extent of adsorption of adsorbate from solution phase increases with ________.
(i) increase in amount of adsorbate in solution.
(ii) decrease in surface area of adsorbent.
(iii) increase in temperature of solution.
(iv) decrease in amount of adsorbate in solution.

7. Which one of the following is not applicable to the phenomenon of adsorption?

(i) ΔH > 0
(ii) ΔG < 0
(iii) ΔS < 0
(iv) ΔH < 0

8. Which of the following is not a favourable condition for physical adsorption?

(i) high pressure
(ii) negative ΔH
(iii) higher critical temperature of adsorbate
(iv) high temperature

9. Physical adsorption of a gaseous species may change to chemical adsorption with ______________.

(i) decrease in temperature
(ii) increase in temperature
(iii) increase in surface area of adsorbent
(iv) decrease in surface area of adsorbent

10. In physisorption adsorbent does not show specificity for any particular gas because ______________.

(i) involved van der Waals forces are universal.
(ii) gases involved behave like ideal gases.
(iii) enthalpy of adsorption is low.
(iv) it is a reversible process.

11. Which of the following is an example of absorption?

(i) Water on silica gel
(ii) Water on calcium chloride
(iii) Hydrogen on finely divided nickel
(iv) Oxygen on metal surface

12. On the basis of data given below predict which of the following gases shows least adsorption on a definite amount of charcoal?

Gas	CO₂	SO₂	CH₄	H₂
Critical temp./K	304	630	190	33

(i) CO₂
(ii) SO₂
(iii) CH₄
(iv) H₂

13. In which of the following reactions heterogenous catalysis is involved?

(i) (b), (c)
(ii) (b), (c), (d)
(iii) (a), (b), (c)
(iv) (d)

14. At high concentration of soap in water, soap behaves as ____________.

(i) molecular colloid
(ii) associated colloid
(iii) macromolecular colloid
(iv) lyophilic colloid

15. Which of the following will show Tyndall effect?

(i) Aqueous solution of soap below critical micelle concentration.
(ii) Aqueous solution of soap above critical micelle concentration.
(iii) Aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
(iv) Aqueous solution of sugar.

16. Method by which lyophobic sol can be protected.

(i) By addition of oppositely charged sol.
(ii) By addition of an electrolyte.
(iii) By addition of lyophilic sol.
(iv) By boiling.

17. Freshly prepared precipitate sometimes gets converted to colloidal solution by ___________.

(i) coagulation
(ii) electrolysis
(iii) diffusion
(iv) peptisation

18. Which of the following electrolytes will have maximum coagulating value for AgI/Ag⁺ sol?

(i) Na₂S
(ii) Na₃PO₄
(iii) Na₂SO₄
(iv) NaCl

19. A colloidal system having a solid substance as a dispersed phase and a liquid as a dispersion medium is classified as ____________.

(i) solid sol
(ii) gel
(iii) emulsion
(iv) sol

20. The values of colligative properties of colloidal solution are of small order in comparison to those shown by true solutions of same concentration because
of colloidal particles __________________.

(i) exhibit enormous surface area.
(ii) remain suspended in the dispersion medium.
(iii) form lyophilic colloids.
(iv) are comparatively less in number.

21. Arrange the following diagrams in correct sequence of steps involved in the mechanism of catalysis, in accordance with modern adsorption theory.

(i) a → b → c → d → e
(ii) a → c → b → d → e
(iii) a → c → b → e → d
(iv) a → b → c → e → d

22. Which of the following process is responsible for the formation of delta at a place where rivers meet the sea?

(i) Emulsification
(ii) Colloid formation
(iii) Coagulation
(iv) Peptisation

23. Which of the following curves is in accordance with Freundlich adsorption isotherm?

24. Which of the following process is not responsible for the presence of electric charge on the sol particles?

(i) Electron capture by sol particles.
(ii) Adsorption of ionic species from solution.
(iii) Formation of Helmholtz electrical double layer.
(iv) Absorption of ionic species from solution.

25. Which of the following phenomenon is applicable to the process shown in the Fig. 5.1?

(i) Absorption
(ii) Adsorption
(iii) Coagulation
(iv) Emulsification

II. Multiple Choice Questions (Type-II)

Note : In the following questions two or more options may be correct.

26. Which of the following options are correct?

(i) Micelle formation by soap in aqueous solution is possible at all temperatures.
(ii) Micelle formation by soap in aqueous solution occurs above a particular concentration.
(iii) On dilution of soap solution micelles may revert to individual ions.
(iv) Soap solution behaves as a normal strong electrolyte at all concentrations.

27. Which of the following statements are correct about solid catalyst?

(i) Same reactants may give different product by using different catalysts.
(ii) Catalyst does not change Î”H of reaction.
(iii) Catalyst is required in large quantities to catalyse reactions.
(iv) Catalytic activity of a solid catalyst does not depend upon the strength of chemisorption.

28. Freundlich adsorption isotherm is given by the expression x/m = k p^1/n which of the following conclusions can be drawn from this expression.

(i) When 1/n = 0, the adsorption is independent of pressure.
(ii) When 1/n = 0, the adsorption is directly proportional to pressure.
(iii) When n = 0, x/m vs p graph is a line parallel to x-axis.
(iv) When n = 0, plot of x/m vs p is a curve.

29. H₂ gas is adsorbed on activated charcoal to a very little extent in comparison to easily liquefiable gases due to ____________.

(i) very strong van der Waalâ€™s interaction.
(ii) very weak van der Waals forces.
(iii) very low critical temperature.
(iv) very high critical temperature.

30. Which of the following statements are correct?

(i) Mixing two oppositely charged sols neutralises their charges and stabilises the colloid.
(ii) Presence of equal and similar charges on colloidal particles provides stability to the colloids.
(iii) Any amount of dispersed liquid can be added to emulsion without destabilising it.
(iv) Brownian movement stabilises sols.

31. An emulsion cannot be broken by __________ and ___________.

(i) heating
(ii) adding more amount of dispersion medium
(iii) freezing
(iv) adding emulsifying agent

32. Which of the following substances will precipitate the negatively charged emulsions?

(i) KCl
(ii) glucose
(iii) urea
(iv) NaCl

33. Which of the following colloids cannot be coagulated easily?

(i) Lyophobic colloids.
(ii) Irreversible colloids.
(iii) Reversible colloids.
(iv) Lyophilic colloids.

34. What happens when a lyophilic sol is added to a lyophobic sol?

(i) Lyophobic sol is protected.
(ii) Lyophilic sol is protected.
(iii) Film of lyophilic sol is formed over lyophobic sol.
(iv) Film of lyophobic sol is formed over lyophilic sol.

35. Which phenomenon occurs when an electric field is applied to a colloidal solution and electrophoresis is prevented?

(i) Reverse osmosis takes place.
(ii) Electroosmosis takes place.
(iii) Dispersion medium begins to move.
(iv) Dispersion medium becomes stationary.

36. In a reaction, catalyst changes ____________.

(i) physically
(ii) qualitatively
(iii) chemically
(iv) quantitatively

37. Which of the following phenomenon occurs when a chalk stick is dipped in ink?

(i) adsorption of coloured substance
(ii) adsorption of solvent
(iii) absorption and adsorption both of solvent
(iv) absoprtion of solvent

III. Short Answer Type

38. Why is it important to have clean surface in surface studies?
39. Why is chemisorption referred to as activated adsorption?
40. What type of solutions are formed on dissolving different concentrations of soap in water?
41. What happens when gelatin is mixed with gold sol?
42. How does it become possible to cause artificial rain by spraying silver iodide on the clouds?
43. Gelatin which is a peptide is added in icecreams. What can be its role?
44. What is collodion?
45. Why do we add alum to purify water?
46. What happens when electric field is applied to colloidal solution?
47. What causes brownian motion in colloidal dispersion?
48. A colloid is formed by adding FeCl₃ in excess of hot water. What will happen if excess sodium chloride is added to this colloid?
49. How do emulsifying agents stabilise the emulsion?
50. Why are some medicines more effective in the colloidal form?
51. Why does leather get hardened after tanning?
52. How does the precipitation of colloidal smoke take place in Cottrell precipitator?
53. How will you distinguish between dispersed phase and dispersion medium in an emulsion?
54. On the basis of Hardy-Schulze rule explain why the coagulating power of phosphate is higher than chloride.
55. Why does bleeding stop by rubbing moist alum?
56. Why is Fe(OH)₃ colloid positively charged, when prepared by adding FeCl₃ to hot water?
57. Why do physisorption and chemisorption behave differently with rise in temperature?
58. What happens when dialysis is prolonged?
59. Why does the white precipitate of silver halide become coloured in the presence of dye eosin.
60. What is the role of activated charcoal in gas mask used in coal mines?
61. How does a delta form at the meeting place of sea and river water?
62. Give an example where physisorption changes to chemisorption with rise in temperature. Explain the reason for change.
63. Why is desorption important for a substance to act as good catalyst?
64. What is the role of diffusion in heterogenous catalysis?
65. How does a solid catalyst enhance the rate of combination of gaseous molecules?
66. Do the vital functions of the body such as digestion get affected during fever? Explain your answer.

IV. Matching Type

Note : Match the items of Column I and Column II in the following questions.

67. Method of formation of solution is given in Column I. Match it with the type of solution given in Column II.

	Column I		Column II
(i)	Sulphur vapours passed through cold water	(a)	Normal electrolyte solution
(ii)	Soap mixed with water above critical micelle concentration	(b)	Molecular colloids
(iii)	White of egg whipped with water	(c)	Associated colloid
(iv)	Soap mixed with water below critical micelle concentration	(d)	Macro molecular colloids

68. Match the statement given in Column I with the phenomenon given in Column II.

	Column I		Column II
(i)	Dispersion medium moves in an electric field	(a)	Osmosis
(ii)	Solvent molecules pass through semi permeable membrane towards solvent side	(b)	Electrophoresis
(iii)	Movement of charged colloidal particles under the influence of applied electric potential towards oppositely charged electrodes	(c)	Electroosmosis
(iv)	Solvent molecules pass through semi permeable membranes towards solution side	(d)	Reverse osmosis

69. Match the items given in Column I and Column II.

	Column I		Column II
(i)	Protective colloid	(a)	FeCl₃ + NaOH
(ii)	Liquid – liquid colloid	(b)	Lyophilic colloids
(iii)	Positively charged colloid	(c)	Emulsion
(iv)	Negatively charged colloid	(d)	FeCl₃ + hot water

70. Match the types of colloidal systems given in Column I with the name given in Column II.

	Column I		Column II
(i)	Solid in liquid	(a)	Foam
(ii)	Liquid in solid	(b)	Sol
(iii)	Liquid in liquid	(c)	Gel
(iv)	Gas in liquid	(d)	Emulsion

71. Match the items of Column I and Column II.

	Column I		Column II
(i)	Dialysis	(a)	Cleansing action of soap
(ii)	Peptisation	(b)	Coagulation
(iii)	Emulsification	(c)	Colloidal sol formation
(iv)	Electrophoresis	(d)	Purification

72. Match the items of Column I and Column II.

	Column I		Column II
(i)	Butter	(a)	dispersion of liquid in liquid
(ii)	Pumice stone	(b)	dispersion of solid in liquid
(iii)	Milk	(c)	dispersion of gas in solid
(iv)	Paints	(d)	dispersion of liquid in solid

V. Assertion and Reason Type

Note : In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a statement of reason is given. Choose the correct answer out of the following
choices.

(i) Assertion and reason both are correct and the reason is correct explanation of assertion.
(ii) Assertion and reason both are correct but reason does not explain assertion.
(iii) Assertion is correct but reason is incorrect.
(iv) Both assertion and reason are incorrect.
(v) Assertion is incorrect but reason is correct.

73. Assertion : An ordinary filter paper impregnated with collodion solution stops the flow of colloidal particles.
Reason : Pore size of the filter paper becomes more than the size of colloidal particle.

74. Assertion : Colloidal solutions show colligative properties.
Reason : Colloidal particles are large in size.

75. Assertion : Colloidal solutions do not show brownian motion.
Reason : Brownian motion is responsible for stability of sols.

76. Assertion : Coagulation power of Al³⁺ is more than Na⁺.
Reason : Greater the valency of the flocculating ion added, greater is its power to cause precipitation (Hardy Schulze rule).

77. Assertion : Detergents with low CMC are more economical to use.
Reason : Cleansing action of detergents involves the formation of micelles. These are formed when the concentration of detergents becomes equal to CMC.

VI. Long Answer Type

78. What is the role of adsorption in heterogenous catalysis?
79. What are the applications of adsorption in chemical analysis?
80. What is the role of adsorption in froth floatation process used especially for concentration of sulphide ores?
81. What do you understand by shape selective catalysis? Why are zeolites good shape selective catalysts?

ANSWERS

I. Multiple Choice Questions (Type-I)

1. (iii) 2. (ii) 3. (iv) 4. (iii) 5. (ii) 6. (i) 7. (i) 8. (iv) 9. (ii) 10. (i) 11. (ii) 12. (iv) 13. (i) 14. (ii) 15. (ii) 16. (iii) 17. (iv) 18. (ii) 19. (iv) 20. (iv) 21. (ii) 22. (iii) 23. (iii) 24. (iv) 25. (ii)

II. Multiple Choice Questions (Type-II)

26. (ii), (iii) 27. (i), (ii) 28. (i), (iii) 29. (ii), (iii) 30. (ii), (iv) 31. (ii), (iv) 32. (i), (iv) 33. (iii), (iv) 34. (i), (iii) 35. (ii), (iii) 36. (i), (ii) 37. (i), (iv)

III. Short Answer Type

38. It is important to have clean surface as it facilitates the adsorption of desired species.
39. Chemisorption involves formation of bond between gaseous molecules/ atoms and the solid surface for which high activation energy is required. Thus it is referred to as activated adsorption.
40. At lower concentration soap forms a normal electrolytic solution with water. After a certain concentration called critical micelle concentration, colloidal solution is formed.
41. Gold sol is a lyophobic sol. Addition of gelatin stabilises the sol.
42. Clouds are colloidal in nature and carry charge. Spray of silver iodide, an electrolyte, results in coagulation leading to rain.
43. Icecreams are emulsions which get stabilised by emulsifying agents like gelatin.
44. It is a 4% solution of nitrocellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether.
45. The colloidal impurities present in water get coagulated by added alum, thus making water potable.
46. The charged colloidal particles start moving towards oppositely charged electrodes.
47. Unbalanced bombardment of the particles of dispersed phase by molecules of dispersion medium causes brownian motion. This stabilises the sol.
48. Positively charged sol of hydrated ferric oxide is formed and on adding excess of NaCl, negatively charged chloride ions coagulate the positively charged sol of hydrated ferric oxide.
49. The emulsifying agent forms an interfacial layer between suspended particles and the dispersion medium thereby stabilising the emulsion.
50. Medicines are more effective in the colloidal form because of large surface area and are easily assimilated in this form.
51. Animal hide is colloidal in nature and has positively charged particles. When it is soaked in tanin which has negatively charged colloidal particles,
it results in mutual coagulation taking place.
52. In Cottrell precipitator, charged smoke particles are passed through a chamber containing plates with charge opposite to the smoke particles. Smoke particles lose their charge on the plates and get precipitated.
53. On adding dispersion medium, emulsions can be diluted to any extent. The dispersed phase forms a separate layer if added in excess.
54. Minimum quantity of an electrolyte required to cause precipitation of a sol is called its coagulating value. Greater the charge on flocculating ion and smaller is the amount of electrolyte required for precipitation, higher is the coagulating power of coagulating ion (Hardy-Schulze rule).
55. Moist alum coagulates the blood and so formed blood clot stops bleeding.
56. The adsorption of positively charged Fe3+ ions by the sol of hydrated ferric oxide results in positively charged colloid.
57. Physisorption involves weak van der Waals forces which weaken with rise in temperature. The chemisorption involves formation of chemical bond
involving activation energy and like any other chemical reaction is favoured by rise in temperature.
58. Due to excessive dialysis, traces of electrolyte which stabilises the colloids is removed completely, making the colloid unstable. As a result coagulation takes place.
59. Eosin is adsorbed on the surface of silver halide precipitate making it coloured.
60. Activated charcoal acts as an adsorbent for various poisonous gases present in the coal mines.
61. River water is a colloidal solution of clay and sea water contains lot of electrolytes. The point at which river and sea meet is the site for coagulation.
Deposition of coagulated clay results in delta formation.
62. The process of physisorption for example that of H₂ on finely divided nickel, involves weak van der Waals’ forces. With increase in temperature, hydrogen molecules dissociate into hydrogen atoms which are held on the surface by chemisorption.
63. After the reaction is over between adsorbed reactants, the process of desorption is important to remove products and further create space for the other reactant molecules to approach the surface and react.
64. The gaseous molecules diffuse on to the surface of the solid catalyst and get adsorbed. After the required chemical changes the products diffuse away from the surface of the catalyst leaving the surface free for more reactant molecules to get adsorbed and undergo reaction.
65. When gaseous molecules come in contact with the surface of a solid catalyst, a weak chemical combination takes place between the surface of the catalyst and the gaseous molecules, which increases the concentration of reactants on the surface. Different moelcules adsorbed side by side have better chance to react and form new molecules. This enhances the rate of reaction. Also, adsorption is an exothermic process. The heat released in the process of adsorption is utilised in enhancing the reaction rate.
66. Hint : The optimum temperature range for enzymatic activity is 298- 310 K. On either side of this temperature range, enzymatic activity gets affected. Thus, during fever, when temperature rises above 310 K, the activity of enzymes may be affected.

IV. Matching Type

67. (i) → (b) (ii) → (c) (iii) → (d) (iv) → (a)
68. (i) → (c) (ii) → (d) (iii) → (b) (iv) → (a)
69. (i) → (b) (ii) → (c) (iii) → (d) (iv) → (a)
70. (i) → (b) (ii) → (c) (iii) → (d) (iv) → (a)
71. (i) → (d) (ii) → (c) (iii) → (a) (iv) → (b)
72. (i) → (d) (ii) → (c) (iii) → (a) (iv) → (b)

V. Assertion and Reason Type

73. (iii) 74. (ii) 75. (v) 76. (i) 77. (i)

VI. Long Answer Type

78. Hint
• reactants are adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst
• occurrence of chemical reaction on the surface of catalyst
• desorption.

79. Hint:
• In TLC
• Adsorption indicators.
• In qualitative analysis.

80. Hint:
• Adsorption of pine oil on sulphide ore particles.
• Formation of emulsion.
• Hence ore comes out with froth.
• Explanation for shape selective catalysis.

81. Hint:
• Honey comb like structure of zeolites.
• Pores provide sites for reactants to react.

LAB MANUAL

COLLOIDS

IN a true solution, solute particles mix homogeneously with the molecules of the solvent and thus form a single phase. However, a colloidal solution is a heterogeneous system in which very fine particles of one substance disperse (dispersed phase) in another substance called dispersion medium. Particles of the dispersed phase do not form a single phase with the particles of the dispersion medium because of the fact that they are either very large molecules or essentially aggregates of small molecules. Colloidal particles are larger in size than simple molecules but small enough to remain suspended in the dispersion medium (10–9 –10–6 m). Some examples of very large molecules which form collidal dispersion are starch, gum and proteins, whereas colloidal sulphur is an examplen of aggregates of small molecules. Further, a heterogeneous system of a solid as dispersed phase and a liquid as dispersion medium is called a sol. Depending upon the nature of interaction between the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium, colloidal sols are divided into two categories, namely, lyophilic (solvent attracting) and lyophobic (solvent repelling). If water is the dispersion medium, the terms used are hydrophilic and hydrophobic. Egg albumin, starch and gum are lyophilic sols. Freshly prepared ferric hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide and arsenic sulphide sols are examples of lyophobic sols. A few methods of preparation of colloids are – chemical methods, electrical disintegration and peptization. In this unit you will learn to prepare both the types of sols. Also, you will learn a method of purification of sols.

EXPERIMENT 1.1

Aim

To prepare (a) lyophilic sol; and (b) lyophobic sol.

Theory

Since particles of dispersed phase in lyophilic sols have an affinity for the particles of dispersion medium, these sols are more stable as compared to lyophobic sols. Two factors responsible for the stability of sols are – charge and the solvation of the colloidal particles by the solvent. Stability of lyophilic sols is primarily due to the solvation of colloidal particles by the solvent whereas lyophobic sols are stabilised by the charge on the colloidal particles. Due to their charges, colloidal particles remain suspended in solution and coagulation does not take place. These charges may be positive or negative. Some examples of negatively charged sols are starch and arsenious sulphide. Positively charged sol of hydrated ferric oxide is formed when FeCl₃ is added to excess of hot water and a negatively charged sol of hydrated ferric oxide is formed when ferric chloride is added to NaOH solution. The lyophilic sols are directly formed by mixing and shaking the substance with a suitable liquid. Lyophobic sols cannot be prepared by direct mixing and shaking. Special methods are employed to prepare these.

Material Required

Procedure

Hazard Warning : • While doing experiment do not eat, drink or smoke.

A. Preparation of Lyophilic Sol

I. Egg Albumin Sol
(i) Prepare 100 mL of 5% (w/v) solution of NaCl in water in a 250 mL beaker.
(ii) Break one egg in a porcelain dish and pipette out the albumin and pour it in sodium chloride solution. Stir well to ensure that the sol is well prepared.

II. Starch/gum Sol
(i) Measure 100 mL of distilled water with the help of a measuring cylinder and transfer it to a 250 mL beaker and boil it.
(ii) Make a paste of 500 mg starch or gum in hot water and transfer this paste to 100 mL of boiling water with constant stirring. Keep water boiling and stirring for
10 minutes after addition of paste. To judge the efficacy of the prepared sol, you may compare it with the original paste prepared.

B. Preparation of Lyophobic Sol

I. Ferric hydroxide/Aluminium hydroxide
(i) Take 100 mL of distilled water in a 250 mL beaker and boil it.
(ii) Add 2g of ferric chloride/aluminium chloride powder to boiling water and stir it well.
(iii) Take 100 mL of distilled water in another 250 mL beaker and boil it.
(iv) Pour 10 mL of ferric chloride/aluminium chloride solution prepared in step (ii) drop by drop into the boiling water with constant stirring. Keep the water boiling till brown/white sol is obtained.

II. Arsenious Sulphide Sol

(i) Transfer 100 mL of distilled water to a beaker of 250 mL capacity.
(ii) Add 0.2 g of arsenious oxide to it and boil the content of the beaker.
(iii) Cool and filter the solution.
(iv) Pass hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) gas through the filtered solution till it smells of H₂S. (Use Kipp’s apparatus to pass hydrogen sulphide gas).
(v) Expel H₂S gas from the sol by slow heating and filter it.
(vi) Label the filtrate as arsenious sulphide sol.

Precautions

(a) While preparing colloidal solutions of starch, gum, ferric chloride, aluminium chloride etc., pour the paste or solution gradually into the boiling water with constant stirring. Addition of these substances in excess may cause precipitation.
(b) Arsenious oxide is poisonous in nature; so wash your hands immediately every time after handling this chemical.

Discussion Questions

(i) How will you differentiate between a true solution and a colloidal dispersion?
(ii) Identify some sols (colloids) that you use in your daily life and mention their importance.
(iii) How do colloids acquire a charge? Why is ferric hydroxide/aluminium hydroxide sol prepared in the experiment, positively charged while arsenious sulphide sol is negatively charged?
(iv) What is coagulation? How is coagulation different from peptization?
(v) How can you convert a colloidal dispersion of sulphur into a true solution?
(vi) Out of lyophilic and lyophobic sols, which one can be easily converted into a gel and why?
(vii) Differentiate between a gel and a sol.
(viii) What are the applications of colloids in the field of Medicine, Defense and in Rocket Technology?

EXPERIMENT 1.2

Aim
To purify prepared sol by dialysis.

Material Required

Procedure
(i) Take a square sheet (30 cm 30 cm) of parchment/cellophane paper.
(ii) Soak the sheet in water and give it a conical shape.
(iii) Pour the colloidal dispersion of egg albumin in the cone of parchment/cellophane paper.
(iv) Tie the cone with a thread and suspend it in a trough containing distilled water as shown in Fig. 1.1.

(v) After about half an hour, test for the presence of ions in the trough water.

(vi) Change the water present in the trough after every half an hour till it is free of the impurities of Na⁺ and Cl^– ions. To check the presence of Na⁺ and Cl^– ions take water from the trough in two test tubes. To one test tube add uranyl zinc acetate and to the other add silver nitrate solution. A yellow precipitate with uranyl zinc acetate indicates the presence of Na⁺ ions, while a white precipitate of silver nitrate
indicates the presence of chloride ions.
(vii) Note the time required for the purification of colloidal dispersion.

Note : In some cases, dialysis may be a very slow process. Therefore, in such cases, it is advisable to change the water of the trough twice or thrice till the colloidal dispersion is free of ions.

Precautions

(a) For dialysis make the parchment bag air tight to prevent the entry of water into the bag. Keep the neck of the parchment bag above the surface of water.
(b) Change the water in the trough from time to time during dialysis.

Discussion Question
(i) How can you make the process of dialysis quick? What are the limitations of this technique?

EXPERIMENT 1.3

Aim

To study the role of emulsifying agents in stabilising the emulsions of different oils.

Theory

Emulsion is a type of colloid in which, both the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are liquids. Here the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are distinguished by their relative amounts. The one, which is present in smaller proportion, is called dispersed phase, while the other, which is present in relatively large quantity, is known as the dispersion medium.

When oil is shaken with water, a faint milky solution is often observed, which is unstable and is called an emulsion of oil in water. On standing, it gets separated into two layers, i.e. oil and water. The mixing capacity of different oils with water is different. This mixing capacity of the oil in addition to its nature depends upon the method of shaking also (i.e.vigorous shaking or swirling).

The stability of an oil and water emulsion is increased by the addition of a suitable emulsifying agent such as soap solution. Soap contains sodium salt of long chain aliphatic carboxylic acids with the carboxyl group as the polar group, which decreases the interfacial surface tension between oil and water. Hence oil mixes with water and emulsification takes place. The concentration of soap required for complete emulsification is called optimum concentration. Any amount less or more than this optimum amount does not cause an effective stabilisation. In the presence of optimum amount of soap solution, oil in water emulsion is more stable and the separation of oil and water layers takes more time.

Material Required

Procedure
(i) Dissolve 1 g of soap/detergent in 10 mL of distilled water in a test tube with vigorous shaking and heat the content of the test tube if needed. Label it as ‘A’.
(ii) Take four test tubes. Mark these as B, C, D and E and to each of the test tubes, add 5 mL distilled water followed by 10 drops of mustard oil in test tube B, linseed oil in test tube C, castor oil in test tube D and machine oil in test tube E, respectively.
(iii) Shake test tube B vigorously for five minutes, keep it in a test tube stand and simultaneously start the stopwatch. Record the time taken for the separation of the two layers.
(iv) Repeat the same procedure with test tubes C, D and E and record the time for the separation of the layers in each case.
(v) Now add two drops of soap/detergent solution from test tube ‘A’ into each test tube (B, C, D and E). Shake each test tube for five minutes and record the time of separation of the layers in each case again.
(vi) Record your observations in a manner detailed in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 : Emulsification of different oils by soap/detergent

Test tube specification	Name of oil used for emulsification	Time taken for the separation of layers
Test tube specification	Name of oil used for emulsification	Without Soap/detergent	With Soap/detergent
B
C
D
E

Precautions

(a) Add equal number of drops of a soap/detergent solution to all the test tubes.
(b) To minimise the error in recording the time required for the separation of layers in different systems, shake all the test tubes for identical time span.
(c) Start the stopwatch immediately after shaking is stopped and stop it immediately when the two layers separate.

Discussion Questions

(i) Name a reagent other than soap, which can be used as an emulsifying agent in the oil in water type emulsion.
(ii) Milk is said to be a stable emulsion. What provides stability to milk?
(iii) Can two miscible liquids form an emulsion?
(iv) Why do separation of layers of different oils forming an emulsion with water take different time?
(v) What are the points of similarity and dissimilarity among sol, gel and emulsion?
(vi) Suggest a test to distinguish between Oil in Water and Water in Oil type of emulsions.
(vii) Give some examples of emulsions that you come across in daily life.
(viii) Dettol forms an emulsion in water. How does this emulsion get stabilised?

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The following Videos are available for you ( As of Now ). These explain tricky Physics and Mathematics Numericals.

Eventually I will try to give Videos for full course here for you.

These covers PU ( Pre University courses, school / college ) courses, IIT JEE, AIEEE ( All India Engineering Entrance Examination ) , CET ( Combined Engineering Test ), AIPMT ( All India Pre Medical Test ), ISc ( Intermediate Science / Indian School Certificate Exam ), CBSE ( Central Board Secondary Exam ), Roorkey Joint Entrance Test Questions ( Discontinued since 2002 ), APhO ( Asian Physics Olympiad ), IPhO ( International Physics Olympiad ), IMO ( International Mathematics Olympiad ) , NSEP ( National Standard Exam in Physics ), RMO ( Regional Math Olympiad , India ), INMO ( Indian National Maths Olympiad ), Irodov Solutions, Prof. H C Verma ( Concepts of Physics ) Solutions etc.

( You can see the history of Indian Participation in various Olympiads at ->
https://zookeepersblog.wordpress.com/indian-participation-in-ipho-icho-ibo-and-astronomy-olympiad/ )

[ In each of these videos there is at-least 1 or more errors. Please tell me about those ]

search for videos in http://www.skmclasses.kinja.com
You should get to see all the Uploaded videos. Though we have many more study videos.

Thanks and Regards
Zookeeper ;-D Subhashish Chattopadhyay

[ I suggest you see the videos starting with 1- first then starting with 2- ….. in that sequence. ]

[ Tell your friends about this link if you liked the videos ]

In case of doubts or suggestions, Please send me email at mokshya@gmail.com

search for videos in http://www.skmclasses.kinja.com

Answers to -> Frequently Asked Questions ( FAQ ) [ commonly asked intelligent Questions 🙂 ]

1 ) How do I prepare for IIT ?

Ans : – See the videos made by me ( search for videos in http://www.skmclasses.kinja.com
Though we have many more which have not been uploaded ). While watching the videos, take notes and try to solve the problems yourself by pausing the video. Tell me if any calculation is wrong. See the videos with 1- first then 2- and so on. Write to IAPT Kothrud, Pune office to buy ( 150 Rs approx ) the book with previous papers of NSEP ( National Standard Exam in Physics – The 1st level ), INPhO ( Indian National Physics Olympiad – 2nd level ). Prepare with these and see how much you are scoring. You can guess your ALL INDIA rank easily from NSEP, and INPhO rank. Since 1998 the IIT JEE toppers have been mostly representing India in IPhO.

2 ) Which codec and Player do I use to see the videos ?

Ans : – You can use GOM Player, or VLC Player. You have to have good speakers with filters or good earphones with filters. We have checked mostly it is OK with these. ( If you are depending only on your embedded speakers of computer /screen / keyboard then there may be extra distortions. As these speakers are often not of good Quality. Also install latest KL Codecs ) In any case reduce the volume see the board, imagine sitting in the last bench and solving the problems of your own. See if your solution differs anywhere with the scribbles on the board.

3 ) Why are you giving these ( high Quality ) lecture for free ?

Ans : Well there are lot of good things free in this world. Linux, My-SQL, Open-Office ….. Go to sourceforge and get thousands of high quality software free along with source code. Yes all officially free …. Why do you think Richard Stallman, Zimmerman, ….. etc are considered Guru philosophers ? In Punjab and Gurudwaras worldwide there are so many Langars where you get better food than Restaurants. ….. why ? Why do you have Dharmasalas and subsidized rest rooms near hospitals / Famous Temples / various places ? in Iftar party anyone can eat for free …. why ?

I am teaching since 1989 I have observed most students can do much better if they have the self motivation to solve and practice. Cheap books are available in second hand bookstalls, where you get thousands of Numericals to solve ….. but most students will like to blow their time going and coming for tuition, travel time …. TV for hours and hours watching cricket / Tennis games, playing computer games …. My free lectures are not going to make much difference in spending of unnecessary money for coaching ….. I know very well , how much people enjoy …. ! spending unnecessarily !!

–

Do you know that there are NO poor / needy students in Bangalore.
–

Sometime back I had tried to teach for IIT JEE FREE. Discussed with a few NGOs and social service guys. Arranged rooms but got only 1 student. We had informed many people in many ways to inform students …. We did not get students who are ready to learn for free. So I am sure these lectures are NOT FREE. If anyone learns from these, s/he changes and that’s the gain / benefit. This change ( due to learning ) is very costly …. Most do not want to learn ………..

search for videos in http://www.skmclasses.kinja.com
You will get most videos. I say most because I do not upload all videos that I make. I have many more videos which are not in the net.

🙂

4 ) How can I get all your lectures ?

Ans : – Apart from my lectures there are approx 700 GB of PCM ( Phy, Chem, Math ) lectures. It takes approx 3 years of continuous download from scattered sources. I have ( 20,000 )Thousands of these. You can take ALL of them from me in an external 1 TB hard disk, instead of spending so much money and time again for downloading. These cover ( by Various Professors ) everything of Chemistry, Physics, Maths… Lot of this is from outside India … as foreigners have much wider heart than Indians ( as most of GNU / open source software have been developed by Non-Indians ). I observed the gaps in these videos, and thus I am solving IIT, APhO, Roorkey, IPhO Numericals. Videos made by me along with these videos gives a complete preparation.

Send me a mail at mokshya@gmail.com to contact me.

search for videos in http://www.skmclasses.kinja.com
You will get most videos. I say most because I do not upload all videos that I make. I have many more videos which are not in the net.

🙂

5 ) How do you get benefited out of this ?

Ans :- If anyone learns we all will have better people in this world. I will have better “ YOU “.
🙂

6 ) Why do you call yourself a Zookeeper ?

Ans :- This is very nicely explained at https://zookeepersblog.wordpress.com/z00keeper-why-do-i-call-myself-a-zoookeeper/

🙂

7 ) Where do you stay ?

Ans :- Presently I am in Bangalore.

🙂

8 ) If I need videos in a few topics can you make them for me ?

Ans :- We actively answers doubts at doubtpoint.
see http://skmclasses.weebly.com/doubtpoint.html
In case you appreciate our time and efforts involved in answering complicated Questions, then get Quality answers at doubtpoint.

🙂

9 ) Why did you write an article saying there are No Poor students ?

Ans :- There are lots of NGOs and others working for rural / poor children education at lower classes. While very less effort is on for std 9 till 12. Also see the answer in question number ( 3 ) above. In more than 2 decades of teaching I never met a Poor child who was seriously interested in ( higher ) studies. As I have a mind / thinking of a ” Physicist “, I go by ” Experimental Observation “.

It is not about what is being said about poor in media / TV etc, or ” what it should be ” ( ? ) …. It is about what I see happening. Also to add ( confuse ? you more )…. You must be knowing that in several states over many years now girl students have better ( by marks as well as by pass percentage ) result in std 10 / Board Exams….. well but NEVER a girl student came FIRST in IIT JEE … why ? [ The best rank by a Girl student is mostly in 2 digits, very rarely in single digit ] ????? So ????

🙂

10 ) How much do I have to study to make it to IIT ?

Ans :- My experience of Teaching for IIT JEE since 1989, tells me, Total 200 hours per subject ( PCM ) is sufficient. If you see my Maths and Physics videos, each subject is more than 200 hours. So if someone sees all the videos diligently, takes notes and remembers, …… Done.

🙂

11 ) What is EAMCET ?

Ans :- Engineering Agriculture and Medicine Common Entrance Test is conducted by JNT University Hyderabad on behalf of APSCHE. This examination is the gateway for entry into various professional courses offered in Government/Private Colleges in Andhra Pradesh.

12 ) In your videos are you covering other Exams apart from IIT ?

Ans : – Yes. See many videos made by solving problems of MPPET, Rajasthan / J&K CET, UPSEAT ( UPES Engineering Aptitude Test ), MHCET, BCECE ( Bihar Combined Entrance Competitive Examination Board ), WB JEE etc

🙂

13 ) What is SCRA ?

Ans : – Special Class Railway Apprentice (SCRA) exam is conducted by Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) board, for about 10 seats.That translates into an astonishing ratio of 1 selection per 10,000 applicants. The SCRA scheme was started in 1927 by the British, to select a handful of most intelligent Indians to assist them in their Railway Operations, after training at their Railway’s largest workshop, i.e. Jamalpur Workshop, and for one year in United Kingdom. The selected candidates were required to appear in the Mechanical Engineering Degree Examination held by Engineering Council (London).

Thanks for your time. To become my friend in google+ ( search me as mokshya@gmail.com and send friend request )

Read http://edge.org/responses/what-scientific-concept-would-improve-everybodys-cognitive-toolkit
🙂
The following video is a must see for full CO2 cycle, plates of Earth, Geological activities, stability of weather

🙂
Article in Nature says CO2 increase is good for the trees
http://thegwpf.org/science-news/6086-co2-is-greening-the-planet-savannahs-soon-to-be-covered-by-forests.html
🙂
http://climaterealists.com/index.php?id=9752

BBC documentary Crescent and Cross shows the 1000 years of fight between Christians and Muslims. Millions have been killed in the name of Religion. To decided whose GOD is better, and which GOD to follow. The fight continues.
–

Summary of Women

🙂
The Virus of Faith

🙂
The God delusion

🙂
cassiopeia facts about evolution

–

Intermediate Fossil records shown and explained nicely Fossils, Genes, and Embryos http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fdpMrE7BdHQ

The Rise Of Narcissism In Women

🙂
13 type of women whom you should never court
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/man-woman/13-Women-you-should-never-court/articleshow/14637014.cms

🙂
Media teaching Misandry in India

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-M2txSbOPIo

Summary of problems with women
http://problemwithwomentoday.blogspot.in/2009/12/problem-with-women-today-what-in-hell.html

🙂
Eyeopener men ? women only exists
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ZAuqkqxk9A

🙂
Each of you is an Activist in some way or other. You are trying to propagate those thoughts, ideas that you feel concerned / excited about.
–

Did you analyze your effectiveness ?

Culturomics can help you

😀
see how biased women are. Experimental proof. Women are happy when they see another woman is beating a man ( see how women misbehave with men )

🙂
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LlFAd4YdQks

–

see detailed statistics at

An eye opener in Misandry

My sincere advice would be to be EXTREMELY careful ( and preferably away ) of girls. As girls age; statistically certain behavior in them has been observed. Most Male can NOT manage those behaviors… Domestic violence, divorce etc are rising very fast. Almost in all cases boys / males are HUGE loosers. Be extremely choosy ( and think from several angles ) before even talking to a girl.
🙂
https://zookeepersblog.wordpress.com/save-the-male/

🙂

How women manipulate men
http://www.angryharry.com/esWomenManipulateMen.htm

Gender Biased Laws in India
https://zookeepersblog.wordpress.com/biased-laws/

🙂

Violence against Men

🙂

Only men are victimised

Men are BETTER than women
http://www.menarebetterthanwomen.com/
🙂

see

🙂

Male Psychology

Women are more violent than men
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/women-are-more-violent-says-study-622388.html

🙂

In the year 2010, 168 men ended their lives everyday ( on average ). More husbands committed suicide than wives.
🙂

http://www.rediff.com/news/report/ncrb-stats-show-more-married-men-committing-suicide/20111028.htm

It is EXTREMELY unfortunate that media projects men as fools, women as superiors, Husbands as servants, and replaceable morons. In ad after ad worldwide from so many companies, similar msg to disintegrate the world is being bombarded. It is highly unacceptable misandry

🙂

It is NOT at all funny that media shows violence against MEN. Some advertisers are trying to create a new ” Socially acceptable culture ” of slapping Men ( by modern city women ). We ( all men ) take objection to these advertisements.
We oppose this Misandry bad culture. Please share to increase awareness against Men bashing

🙂

Think what are you doing … why are you doing ?

Every Man must know this …

🙂
Manginas, White Knights, & Other Chivalrous Dogs

!
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key words

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Resistance Battery Trick Questions Infinite Ladder Quadratic Cubic Quartic Quintic Orissa NSEP ckt eqn mesh Folding Lenzs J&K Karnataka RMS instantaneous BCECE Maharastra MHCET RPET stepup stepdown transformer Bilekahalli UPSEAT shunt galvanometer susceptibility oscillating magnetometer pole strength Bihar Rajasthan Uttarpradesh Punjab Hariana TN Tamilnadu Andhra WB west Bengal Vacuum Diode Triode Rectifier Truth Table Thermionic emission, Radioactivity Half Life Langmiur, Child Law FCC BCC Cube Optics Lens Mirror Focus Focal Concave Convex Lux Phot Lumen Double slit Complex Integral coordinate Geometry compounds, Biochemistry, Plastic, Organic Chemistry Physical Analytical Inorganic Metallurgy, Biotechnology, Polymer Science, Rubber Technology Geology, Pharma, Veterinary Science,Food Technology, Cryogenics, Ceramics acid species IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com proton donor activation energy minimum energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reaction breaking bonds addition polymer very long molecular chain formed repeated addition reactions many unsaturated alkene molecules monomers addition polymerisation process unsaturated alkene molecules monomers add growing polymer chain one timeIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com long saturated molecular chain addition polymer addition reaction reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reactant added IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com unsaturated molecule saturated molecule adsorption process IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com occurs gas, liquid solute surface solid rarely liquid alicyclic hydrocarbon hydrocarbon IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carbon atoms joined together ring structure aliphatic hydrocarbon hydrocarbon IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carbon atoms joined together straight branched chains alkali type base IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com dissolves water forming hydroxide ions OH (aq) ions alkanes homologous series IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com general formula C alkyl group alkane IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com hydrogen atom removed CH alkyl groups IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com ‘R’ amount substance quantity whose unit mole Chemists amount substance IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com IITJEE counting atoms anhydrous substance IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com contains water molecules anion negatively charged ion atom economy atomic orbital region within atom hold two electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com opposite spins atomic proton number number protons nucleus atom 100 products masses molecular sum product desired mass molecular economy atom Chemistry average bond enthalpy average enthalpy change IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com place IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com breaking homolytic fission 1 molIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com type bond molecules gaseous species Avogadro constant,isotope number atoms mole carbon base species IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com proton acceptor biodegradable material substance IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com broken IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com naturally environment living organisms Boltzmann distribution distribution energies molecules particular temperature IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com graph bond enthalpy enthalpy change IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com breaking homolytic fission 1 mol bond molecules gaseous species carbanion organic ion IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carbon atom hIITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com negative charge carbocation organic ion IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carbon atom hIITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com positive charge catalyst substance IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com increases rate chemical reaction process cation positively charged ion cis trans isomerism special type isomerism IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com non hydrogen group skmclasses.weebly.com hydrogen atom C C=C double bond cis isomer ( Z isomer) IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com H atoms on IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carbon same side trans isomer E isomer H atoms carbon different bond compound substance formed IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com two IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com chemically bonded elements fixed ratio, usually chemical formula concentration amount solute mol IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com 1 dm 3 1000 cm solution coordinate bond shared pair electrons provided one bonding atoms called dative covalent bond covalent bond bond formed shared pair electrons cracking breaking long chained saturated hydrocarbonsIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com mixture shorter chained alkanesalkenes curly arrow symbol IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reaction mechanisms IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com show movement electron Coaching ICWA Coaching CFA Coaching CFP Coaching CMAT Coaching School Tuitions CBSE School Tuitions Home Tuitions 9th STD Tuitions PUC Coaching 10th Std Tuitions College Tuitions Maths Tuitions Engineering Tuitions Accounts & Finance Tuitions MBA & BBA Coaching Microbiology & Biotech Tuitions Study Abroad GRE & SAT Coaching GMAT Coaching IELTS/TOEFL Coaching PTE Coaching proteins protonation pyridines pyrroles quinones quinolines radical reaction radicals rearrangement receptors reduction regioselectivity retro reaction rhodium ring closure ring contraction ring expansion ring opening ruthenium samarium scandium Schiff bases selenium self-assembly silicon sodium solid-phase synthesis solvent effects spectroscopy sphingolipids spiro compounds stereoselective synthesis stereoselectivity steric hindrance steroids Stille reaction substituent effects sulfates sulfonamides sulfones sulfoxides sulfur supported catalysis supramolecular tandem reaction tautomerism terpenoids thioacetals thiols tin titanium total synthesis transesterification transition metals transition states tungsten Umpolung vinylidene complexes vitamins Wacker reaction Wittig reaction ylides zeolites zinc BRST Quantization Effective field theories Field Theories Higher Dimensions Field Theories Lower Dimensions Large Extra Dimensions Lattice Quantum Field Theory Nonperturbative Effects Renormalization Group Renormalization Regularization skmclasses.weebly.com Renormalons Sigma Models 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skmclasses.weebly.com String Models CP violation Electromagnetic Processes skmclasses.weebly.com Properties GUT Heavy Quark Higgs Kaon LEP HERA skmclasses.weebly.com SLC Neutrino Physics Quark Masses skmclasses.weebly.comSM Parameters Rare Decays Standard Model Supersymmetric Standard Model Technicolor skmclasses.weebly.com Composite Models Chiral Lagrangians Deep Inelastic Scattering Higher Twist Effects Lattice QCD Parton Model Phase Diagram QCD Phenomenological Models QCD Quark-Gluon Plasma Resummation Sum Rules Aim Global Education Koramangala Computer Networking Training Cloud Computing Training JBOSS Training Juniper Certification Training L2 & L3 Protocol Training MCTS Training Engineering design Training CAD & CAM Training MATLAB Training PLC Training SCADA Training VLSI Design Multimedia & Design Training 2D Animation Training 3D Animation Training 4D Animation Training CorelDRAW Training VFX Training Web Technologies Training ASP.Net Training JQuery pair breaking formation covalent bond dative covalent shared pair electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com hIITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com been provided one bonding atoms only IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com called coordinate bond dehydration elimination reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com water removed saturated molecule IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com unsaturated molecule delocalised Electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com shared IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com two atoms displacement reaction reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reactive element displaces less reactive element IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com aqueous solution latter’s ions displayed formula showing relative positioning atoms molecule skmclasses.weebly.com bonds IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com disproportionation oxidation skmclasses.weebly.com reduction element redox reaction dynamic equilibrium equilibrium IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com exists closed system IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com rate forward reaction equal IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com rate reverse reaction E/Z isomerism type stereoisomerism IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com different groups attached IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carbon C=C double bond arranged differently space restricted rotation C=C bond electron configuration arrangement electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atom electronegativity measure attraction bonded atom skmclasses.weebly.com pair electrons covalent bond electron shielding repulsion IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electrons different inner shells Shielding reduces net attractive force IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com positive nucleus outer shell electrons electrophile atom group atoms IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com attracted IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electron rich centre atom IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com accepts pair electrons covalent bond electrophilic addition type addition reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electrophile attracted electron rich centre atom accepts pair electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com new covalent bond elimination reaction removal molecule IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com saturated molecule IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com unsaturated molecule empirical formula simplest whole number ratio atoms IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com element present compound endothermic reaction reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com enthalpy products greater enthalpy reactants resulting heat being taken surroundings enthalpy heat content IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com stored chemical system standard enthalpy change combustion enthalpy change IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one mole substance reacts completely IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com oxygen under standard conditions reactants skmclasses.weebly.com products being IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com standard states (standard) enthalpy change formation enthalpy change IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one mole compound formed IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com constituent elements IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com standard states under standard conditions (standard) enthalpy change reaction enthalpy change IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com accompanies reaction molar quantities expressed chemical equation under standard conditions reactants skmclasses.weebly.com products being IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com standard states enthalpy cycle diagram showing alternative routes IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reactants products IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com allows indirect determination IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com enthalpy change IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com other known enthalpy changes using Hess’ law enthalpy profile diagram skmclasses.weebly.com reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com compare enthalpy reactants IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com enthalpy products esterification reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com alcohol IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carboxylic acid IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com produce ester skmclasses.weebly.com water exothermic reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com enthalpy products smaller enthalpy reactants, resulting heat loss IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com surroundings fractional distillation separation components liquid mixture skmclassesfractions IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com differ boiling point skmclasses.weebly.com hence chemical composition IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com distillation typically using fractionating column fragmentation process mass spectrometry IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com causes positive ion split skmclasses pieces one positive fragment ion functional group part organic molecule responsible skmclasses.weebly.com chemical reactions general formula simplest algebraic formula member homologous series. skmclasses.weebly.com example general formula alkanes giant covalent lattice dimensional structure atoms, bonded together strong covalent bonds giant ionic lattice three dimensional structure oppositely charged ions, bonded together strong ionic bonds giant metallic lattice three dimensional structure positive ions skmclasses.weebly.com delocalised electrons, bonded together strong metallic bonds greenhouse effect process IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com absorption subsequent emission infrared radiation atmospheric gases warms lower atmosphere planet’s surface group vertical column Periodic Table Elements group IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com similar chemical properties skmclasses.weebly.com atoms skmclasses.weebly.comnumber outer shell electrons Hess law reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one route skmclasses.weebly.com initial final conditions IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com skmclasses.weebly.com total enthalpy change skmclasses.weebly.com skmclasses.weebly.com route heterogeneous catalysis reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com catalyst IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com different physical state reactants; frequently, reactants IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com gases whilst catalyst solid heterolytic fission breaking covalent bond IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com both bonded electrons going IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one atoms, forming cation (+ ion) skmclasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com anion ion homogeneous catalysis reaction catalyst skmclasses.weebly.com reactants physical state, IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com frequently aqueous gaseous state homologous series series organic compounds IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com skmclasses.weebly.com functional group, IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com successive member differing homolytic fission breaking covalent bond IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one bonded electrons going IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atom, forming two radicals hydrated Crystalline skmclasses.weebly.com containing water molecules hydrocarbon compound hydrogen skmclasses.weebly.com carbon hydrogen bond strong dipole attraction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electron deficient hydrogen atom (O H on different molecule hydrolysis reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com water aqueous hydroxide ions IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com breaks chemical compound skmclasses two compounds initiation first step radical substitution IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com free radicals generated ultraviolet radiation intermolecular force attractive force IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com neighbouring molecules Intermolecular forces van der Waals’ forces induced dipole ces permanent dipole forces hydrogen bonds ion positively negatively charge atom covalently bonded group atoms molecular ion ionic bonding electrostatic attraction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com oppositely charged ions first) ionisation energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com remove one electron IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com ion one mole gaseous 1+ ions IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one mole gaseous 2+ ions second) ionisation energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com remove one electron IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com ion one mole gaseous 1+ ions IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one mole gaseous 2+ ions successive ionisation measure energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com remove IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electron Chemistry energy second ionisation energy energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one electron IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com ion one mole gaseous 1+ ions IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one mole gaseous 2+ ions isotopes Atoms skmclasses.weebly.com element IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com different numbers neutrons different masses le Chatelier’s principle system dynamic equilibrium subjected change position equilibrium will shift minimise change limiting reagent substance chemical reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com runs out first lone pair outer shell pair electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com involved chemical bonding mass nucleon number particles protons aneutrons) nucleus mechanism sequence steps showing path taken electrons reaction metallic bond electrostatic attraction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com positive metal ions adelocalised electrons molar mass substance units molar mass IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com molar volume IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com mole gas. units molar volume IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com dm room temperature skmclasses.weebly.com pressure molar volume approximately 24.0 substance containing IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com many particles thereIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com carbon atoms exactly 12 g carbon isotope molecular formula number atoms IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com element molecule molecular ion M positive ion formed mass spectrometry IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com molecule loses electron molecule small group atoms held together covalent bonds monomer small molecule IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com combines IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com monomers polymer nomenclature system naming compounds nucleophile atom group atoms attracted electron deficient centre atom donates pair electrons covalent bond nucleophilic substitution type substitution reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com nucleophile attracted electron deficient centre atom, IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com donates pair electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com new covalent bond oxidation Loss electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com increase oxidation number oxidation number measure number electrons IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atom uses bond IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atoms another element. Oxidation numbers IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com derive d rules oxidising agent reagent IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com oxidises (takes electrons from) another species percentage yield period horizontal row elements Periodic Table Elements show trends properties across period periodicity regular periodic variation properties elements IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atomic number position Periodic Table permanent dipole small charge difference across bond resulting IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com difference electronegativities bonded atoms permanent dipole dipole force attractive force IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com permanent dipoles neighbouring polar molecules pi bond (p bond reactive part double bond formed above skmclasses.weebly.com below plane bonded atoms sideways overlap p orbitalspolar covalent bond bond IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com permanent dipole polar molecule molecule IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com overall dipole skmclasses account dipoles across bonds polymer long molecular chain built monomer units precipitation reaction formation solid solution during chemical reaction Precipitates IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com formed IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com two aqueous solutions IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com mixed together principal quantum number n number representing relative overall energy orbital IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com increases distance nucleus sets orbitals IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com value IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com electron shells energy levels propagation two repeated radical substitution IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com build up products chain reaction radical species unpaired electron rate reaction change concentration reactant product redox reaction reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reduction skmclasses.weebly.com oxidation take IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reducing agent reagent IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reduces (adds electron to) species reduction Gain electrons decrease oxidation number yield actual amount mol product theoretical amount mol product Chemistry reflux continual boiling skmclasses.weebly.com condensing reaction mixture ensure IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com without contents flask boiling dry relative atomic mass weighted mean mass atom element compared one twelfth mass IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atom carbon relative formula mass weighted mean mass formula unit compared IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one twelfth mass atom carbon relative isotopic mass mass atom isotope compared IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one twelfth mass atom carbon relative molecular mass weighted mean mass molecule compared twelfth mass atom carbon 12 repeat unit specific arrangement atom s IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com occurs structure over over again. Repeat units IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com included brackets outside IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com symbol n Salt chemical compound formed IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com acid IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com H+ ion acid IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com been replaced metal ion another positive ion such IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com ammonium ion, NH saturated hydrocarbon IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com single bonds only shell group atomic orbitals IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com skmclasses.weebly.com principal quantum number known main energy level simple molecular lattice three dimensional structure molecules, bonded together weak intermolecular forces skeletal formula simplified organic formula, IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com hydrogen atoms removed alkyl chains, leaving carbon skeleton skmclasses.weebly.com associated functional groups species particle IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com part chemical reaction specific heat capacity, c energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com raise temperature 1 g substance 1 C spectator ions Ions present part chemical reaction standard conditions pressure 100 kPa 1 atmosphere stated temperature usually 298 K (25 °C), skmclasses.weebly.com concentration 1 mol dm reactions aqueous solutions standard enthalpies enthalpystandard solution solution known concentration Standard solutions normally IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com titrations IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com determine unknown information another substance Chemistry standard state physical state substance under standard conditions 100 kPa 1 atmosphere) skmclasses.weebly.com 298 K 25 C stereoisomers Compounds skmclasses.weebly.com structural formula IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com different arrangement atoms space stoichiometry molar relationship IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com relative quantities substances part reaction stratosphere second layer Earth’s atmosphere, containing ‘ozone layer’, about 10 km IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com 50 km above Earth’s surface structural formula formula showing minimal detail skmclasses.weebly.com arrangement atoms molecule structural isomers Molecules IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com skmclasses.weebly.com molecular formula different structural arrangements atoms subshell group skmclasses.weebly.com type atomic orbitals s, p, d f within shell substitution reaction reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atom group atoms replaced different atom group atoms termination step end radical substitution IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com two radicals combine IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com molecule thermal decomposition breaking chemical substance IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com heat skmclasses least two chemical substances troposphere lowest layer Earth’s atmosphere extending Earth’s surface about 7 km (above poles) about 20 km above tropics unsaturated hydrocarbon hydrocarbon containing carbon carbon multiple bonds van der Waals’ forces Very weak attractive forces IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com induced dipoles neighbouring molecules volatility ease IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com liquid turns skmclasses gas Volatility increases boiling point decreases water crystallisation Water molecules IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com essential part crystalline structure absolute zero – theoretical condition concerning system at zero Kelvin IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com system does IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com emit absorb energy (all atoms rest accuracy – how close value IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com actual true value IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com see precision acid compound that, IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com dissolved water pH less 7.0 compound IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com donates hydrogen ion acid anhydride compound IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com two acyl groups boundIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com single oxygen atom acid dissociation constant – IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com equilibrium constant skmclasses.weebly.com dissociation weak acid actinides – fifteen chemical elements IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com actinium (89) skmclasses.weebly.com lawrencium (103 activated complex – structure IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com forms because collisionIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com molecules new bondsvIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com formed activation energy – minimum energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com must be inputIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com chemical system activity series actual yield addition reaction – within organic chemistry, IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com two IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com molecules combineIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com larger aeration mixing air skmclasses liquid solid alkali metals metals Group 1 on periodic table alkaline earth metals – metals Group 2 on periodic table allomer substance IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com hIITJEE skmclasses.weebly.comdifferent composition another skmclasses.weebly.comcrystalline structure allotropy elements IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com different structures skmclasses.weebly.com therefore different forms IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com Carbon diamonds, graphite, skmclasses.weebly.com fullerene anion negatively charge ions anode – positive side dry cell battery cell aromaticity – chemical property conjugated rings IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com results unusual stability. See IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com benzene atom – chemical element IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com smallest form, skmclasses.weebly.com made up neutrons skmclasses.weebly.comprotons within nucleus skmclasses.weebly.comelectrons circling nucleus atomic mass unit atomic number number representing IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com element IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com corresponds IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com number protons within nucleus atomic orbital region IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electron atom may be found atomic radius average atomic mass Avogadro’s law Avogadro’s number number particles mole substance ( 6.02×10^23 ) barometer deviceIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.comIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com measure pressure atmosphere base substance IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com accepts proton skmclasses.weebly.com high pH; common example sodium hydroxide (NaOH biochemistry chemistry organisms boiling phase transition liquid vaporizing boiling point temperature IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com substance startsIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com boil boiling-point elevation process IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com boiling point elevated adding substance bond – attraction skmclasses.weebly.com repulsion IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atoms skmclasses.weebly.com molecules IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com cornerstone Boyle’s law Brønsted-Lowrey acid chemical species IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com donates proton Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction Brønsted-Lowrey base – chemical species IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com accepts proton buffered solution – IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com aqueous solution consisting weak acid skmclasses.weebly.comits conjugate base weak base skmclasses.weebly.comits conjugate acid IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com resists changes pH IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com strong acids basesIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com added burette (IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com buret glasswareIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com dispense specific amounts liquid IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com precision necessary titration skmclasses.weebly.com resource dependent reactions example combustion catalyst chemical compoundIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.comIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com change rate IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com speed up slow down reaction,IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com regenerated at end reaction cation – positively charged ion centrifuge equipmentIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.comIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com separate substances based on density rotating tubes around centred axis cell potential force galvanic cell IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com pulls electron through reducing agentIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com oxidizing agent chemical Law certain rules IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com pertain IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com laws nature skmclasses.weebly.comchemistry – examples chemical reaction – change one IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com substances skmclassesanother multiple substances colloid mixture evenly dispersed substances such IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.comm milks combustion IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com exothermic reaction IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com oxidant skmclasses.weebly.comfuel IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com heat skmclasses.weebly.comoften light compound – substance IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com made up two IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com chemically bonded elements condensation phase changeIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com gasIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com liquid conductor material IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com allows electric flow IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com freely covalent bond – chemical bond IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com involves sharing electrons crystal solid IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com packed IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com ions, molecules atoms IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com orderly fashion cuvette glasswareIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com spectroscopic experiments. usually made plastic glass quartz skmclasses.weebly.comshould be IITJEE possible deionization removal ions, skmclasses.weebly.com water’s case mineral ions such IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.comsodium, iron skmclasses.weebly.comcalcium deliquescence substances IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com absorb water IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atmosphereIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com liquid solutions deposition – settling particles within solution mixture dipole electric magnetic separation charge dipole moment – polarity polar covalent bond dissolution solvation – spread ions monosacharide double bond sharing two pairs electradodes Microcentrifuge Eppendorf tube IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com Coomassie Blue solution earth metal – see alkaline earth metal electrolyte solution IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com conducts certain amount current skmclasses.weebly.com split categorically IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com weak skmclasses.weebly.comstrong electrolytes electrochemical cell using chemical reaction’s current electromotive force made electromagnetic radiation type wave IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com through vacuums IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.comwell IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.commaterial skmclasses.weebly.comclassified IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com self-propagating wave electromagnetism fields IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electric charge skmclasses.weebly.comelectric properties IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com change way IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com particles move skmclasses.weebly.com interact electromotive force device IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com gains energy IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.comelectric charges pass through electron – subatomic particle IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com net charge IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com negative electron shells – IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com orbital around atom’s nucleus fixed number electrons usually two eight electric charge measured property (coulombs) IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com determine electromagnetic interaction element IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atom IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com defined IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com atomic number energy – system’s abilityIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com do work enthalpy – measure total energy thermodynamic system (usually symbolized IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.comH entropy – amount energy IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com available skmclasses.weebly.com work closed thermodynamic system usually symbolized IITJEE skmclasses.weebly.com S enzyme – protein IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com speeds up catalyses reaction Empirical Formula – IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com called simplest formula gives simplest whole -number ratio atoms IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com element present compound eppendorf tube – generalized skmclasses.weebly.comtrademarked term skmclasses.weebly.com type tube; see microcentrifuge freezing – phase transitionIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com liquidIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com solid Faraday constant unit electrical charge widelyIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electrochemistry skmclasses.weebly.comequalIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com ~ 96,500 coulombs represents 1 mol electrons, Avogadro number electrons: 6.022 × 1023 electrons. F = 96 485.339 9(24) C/mol Faraday’s law electrolysis two part law IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com Michael Faraday published about electrolysis mass substance altered at IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electrode during electrolysis directly proportionalIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com quantity electricity transferred at IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electrode mass IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com elemental material altered at IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electrode directly proportionalIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com element’s equivalent weight frequency number cyclesIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com unit time. Unit: 1 hertz = 1 cycleIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com 1 second galvanic cell battery made up electrochemical IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com two different metals connected salt bridge gas particles container IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com no definite shape volume geochemistry – chemistry skmclasses.weebly.comchemical composition Earth Gibbs energy – value IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com indicates spontaneity reaction usually symbolized G Cavalier India, Kalyan Nagar halogens Group 7 Periodic Table skmclasses.weebly.comare non-metals heat energy transferredIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one systemIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com another thermal interaction jodium – Latin name halogen element iodine Joule SI I.M.S. Learning Resources Pvt. 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IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com called “visible light London dispersion forces weak intermolecular force Law Motion object motion stay motion IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com object rest stays rest unless IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com unbalanced force acts molecule IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com one key components within chemistry Metal Chemical element IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com good conductor both electricity skmclasses.weebly.comheat skmclasses.weebly.comforms cations skmclasses.weebly.comionic bonds IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com non-metals melting phase changeIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com solidIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com liquid metalloid substance possessing both properties metals skmclasses.weebly.comnon-metals methylene blue heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com molecular formula C16H18N3SCl microcentrifuge plastic container IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.comIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com store small amounts liquid mole – abbreviated mol measurement IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com amount substance single mole contains approximately 6.022×1023 units entities mole water contains 6.022×1023 H2O molecules molecule chemically I Beacons Academy, Jaya Nagar 4th Block bonded number atoms IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.comIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electrically neutral molecular orbital region mIITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com electron found molecule opposed atom neat Alchemy India Services Pvt. 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33, Sector IV HSR Layout, Bangalore hydrolysis hydrosilylation hydrostannation hyperconjugation imides imines indium indoles induction inhibitors insertion iodine ionic liquids iridium iron isomerization The Brigade International School , Brigade Millenium JP Nagar Brigade Millenium, JP Nagar Bangalore ketones kinetic resolution lactams lactones lanthanides Lewis acids ligands lipids lithiation lithium macrocycles magnesium manganese Mannich bases medicinal chemistry metalation metallacycles metallocenes metathesis Michael addition Mitsunobu reaction molecular recognition molybdenum multicomponent reaction nanostructures natural products neighboring-group effects nickel nitriles nitrogen nucleobases nucleophiles nucleophilic addition nucleophilic National Centre For Excellence 154/1, “Victorian Enclave”, 5th Main, Malleshpalya, Bangalore aromatic substitution nucleosides nucleotides olefination oligomerization oligonucleotides oligosaccharides organometallic reagents osmium oxidation oxygen oxygenations ozonolysis palladacycles palladium peptides pericyclic reaction peroxides phase-transfer catalysis phenols pheromones phosphates phosphorus phosphorylation Adugodi Aga Abbas Ali Road Agaram Agrahara Dasara Halli Agrahara Dasarahalli Airport Exit Road Airport Main Road Airport Road Akkipet Ali Askar Road Alur Venkatarao Road Amarjyothi Layout Amruth Nagar Amrutha Halli Ananda Nagar Anandrao Circle Anche Palya Ane Palya Anekal Anjana Nagar Anubhava Nagar APMC Yard Arabic College Arakere Arcot Sreenivasachar Street Ashok Nagar Ashwath Nagar Attibele Attiguppe Austin Town Avala Halli Avenue Road B. Narayanapura Babusahib Palya Bagalagunte Bagalur Balaji Nagar Balepet Banashankari Banashankari 1st Stage Banashankari 2nd Stage Banashankari 3rd Stage Banaswadi Banaswadi Ring Road Bangalore G.P.O Bannerghatta Bannerghatta Road Bapuji Nagar Basappa Circle Basava Nagar Basavanagudi Basaveshwara Nagar Basaveshwara Nagar 2nd Stage Basaveshwara Nagar 3rd Block Basaveshwara Nagar 3rd Stage Basaveshwara Road Bazaar Street Begur BEL Road Bellandur Bellandur Outer Ring Road Bellary Road BEML Layout Benagana Halli Bendre Nagar Benson Town Bharati Nagar Bhattara Halli Bhoopasandra Bhuvaneshwari Nagar Bidadi Bileka Halli Bilekahalli Binny Mill Road Bismillah Nagar Bommana Halli Bommanahalli Kendriya Vidyalaya Malleswaram 18th Cross Malleswaram Bangalore Bommasandra Bommasandra Industrial Area Brigade Road Brindavan Nagar Brookefield Brunton Road BTM 1st Stage BTM 2nd Stage Bull Temple Road Palace Orchards/Sadashivnagar area located north city centre IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com property prices higher brackets possibly IITJEE SKMClasses.weebly.com up-market residential area in Bangalore M.G. 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Ambedkar Veedhi Dr. DVG Road Delhi Public School, South 11 K.M., kanakapura Road Konanakunte Post, Bangalore Dr. Raj Kumar Road Dr. TCM Royan Road Ejipura Electronic City Field Marshal Cariappa Road Frazer Town Ganapathi Nagar Gandhi Bazaar Gandhi Nagar Ganga Nagar Gangadhar Chetty Road Ganigarpet Garvebhavi Palya Gavipuram Extension Gayathri Nagar Geddala Halli Geddalahalli Giri Nagar Giri Nagar 1st Phase Giri Nagar 2nd Phase GM Palya Gokula Golf Course Road Gorgunte Palya Govindaraj Nagar Green Park Extension, Guddada Halli Gundopanth Street National Public School, Indiranagar 12 A Main HAL II Stage, Bangalore H.Siddaiah Road Haines Road HAL HAL 2nd Stage HAL 3rd Stage HAL Airport Road Hampi Nagar Hanumantha Nagar Hayes Road HBR Layout Hebbal Kempapura Hebbal Ring Road Hegde Nagar Heggana Halli Hennur Hesaraghatta HKP Road HMT Layout Hongasandra Hoody Horamavu Hosakere Halli photochemistry photooxidation piperidines polyanions polycations polycycles polymers Porphyrins prostaglandins 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Training iPhone Development Training Mobile Application Testing Training Mobile Gaming Training Mobile Application Development Training Oakridge International School Oakridge International School, Sarjapur Road, , Bangalore School of India, Bannerghatta, Bangalore Delhi Public School DPS North Campus, Yelahanka, Bangalore Jain International Residential School (JIRS), Jakkasandra Post, Bangalore Delhi Public School (DPS East), Sarjapur, Bangalore TREAMIS World School, Electronics City, Bangalore South Delhi Public School (South), Kanakapura Road, Bangalore The Deen’s Academy, Whitefield, Bangalore National Public School (NPS), Koramangala, Bangalore Royale Concorde International School, Kalyan Nagar, Bangalore Freedom International School, HSR Layout, Bangalore Air Force School Army Public School Bangalore Military School BGS International School Cambridge Public School Delhi Public School Deva Matha Central School Jain International Residential School Kendriya Vidyalaya A M C School A.S.C Public School Amara Jyothi Public School Anand Shiksha Kendra ICSE Syllabus ACTS Secondary School B Mona High School Baldwin Boys High School Baldwin Girls High School Bishop Cotton Boys School Bishop Cotton Girls School Brigade School Candor International School Cambridge Public School Cathedral High School Chinmaya Vidyalay Christ Academy Ekya School Gnan Srishti School of Excellence Gopalan National School India International School IIS Lawrence School-ICSE New Horizon Public School Notre Dame Academy Paradise Residential School Patel Public School Podar International School Prakriya Green Wisdom School Primus School Ryan International School Sishu Griha St. Francis De Sales (SFS) High School Sherwood High Sri Kumaran Childrens Home St Francis School St Johns High School St Thomas Public School St. Patricks Academy St. Peters School Vibgyor High CBSE Syllabus AECS Magnolia Maaruti Public School Amaatra Academy Amrita Vidyalayam BGS-NPS School Brigade School BRS Global Centre for Excellence Capitol Public School CMR National Public School Delhi Public School East, South, North Edify School EuroSchool Freedom International School Geethanjali Montessori Geethanjali Vidhyalaya Gitanjali International School GISB Greengrove International School Gomathy Global School Harvest International School JSS Public School Kendriya Vidyalaya KV Manipal Tattva School Mirambika School for New Age NITTE International School National Centre for Excellence NCFE National Public School New Horizon Gurukul NHG Oakridge International School Presidency School PSBB LLA Padma Seshadri Bal Bhavan Radcliffe School Ravindra Bharathi Global School Sadhguru Sainath International School SSI Sri Kumaran Childrens Home Sunrise International Residential School Sujaya School The Samhita Academy Vagdevi Vilas School Venkat International Public School VIPS Vyasa International School Zee School IGCSE Syllabus Asia Pacific World School Krupanidhi Cambridge International School Candor International 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Krishnamurthi Aurinko Academy Chetana Kini Institute Samarthanam Residential School XSeed Schools Mirambika School New Age Sri Aurobindo Mother Teresa Public School curriculum Chrysalis High List of Schools Achievers International Academy ACTS Secondary School Amaatra Academy Amar Jyothi School Amrita Vidyalayam Army Public School Asia Pacific World School Aurinko Academy B Mona High School Baldwin Boys High School Baldwin Girls High School Bangalore International School Bangalore School Bethany High Bethany Junior School BGS-NPS School Bishop Cotton Boys School Bishop Cotton Girls School Brigade School British International School BRS Global Centre for Excellence BVM Global Cambridge Public School Candor International School Capitol Public School Cathedral High School Chinmaya Vidyalaya Christ Academy Chrysalis High CMR National Public School Delhi Public School Deva Matha Central School Edify School Ekya School EuroSchool Freedom International School Gear School Geethanjali Montessori Geethanjali Vidhyalaya Gitanjali International (GISB) Global Indian International School Gnan Srishti School Gomathy Global School Gopalan School Green County Public School Greengrove International School Greenwood High Harvest International School India International School Innisfree House School JSS Public School Kendriya Vidyalaya (KV) Lawrence School ICSE Lawrence School-State Magnolia Maaruti Public School Manipal Tattva School Mirambika School for New Age Mother Teresa Public School National Centre for Excellence National Hill View Public School National Public School New Horizon Gurukul New Horizon Public School Nitte International School Notre Dame Academy Oakridge International School Oxford Public School Parachute Regiment School Paradise Residential School Patel Public School Podar International School Prakriya Green Wisdom School Presidency School Primus School PSBB LLA Radcliffe School Ravindra Bharathi Global School Ryan International School Sadhguru Sainath International School Samarthanam Residential School SFS High School Sherwood High Shibumi Silver Oaks Sishu Griha Sri Chaitanya Techno School Sri Kumaran Childrens Home Sri Rakum School for the blind St Francis School St Johns High School St Mira School St Thomas Public School St. Patrick’s Academy St. Peters School Sujaya School Sunrise International Residential School The Samhita Academy Trio World School Vagdevi Vilas School Venkat International Public School Vibgyor High Vidyaniketan School Vyasa International School Whitefield Global School Xseed Pre-School Zee School
Primary Years Programme Colegio Anglo Mexicano MEXICO Milgate Primary School, AUSTRALIA Diploma Programme Australian International School Indonesia Pejaten Campus INDONESIA Instituto Educativa Fiscomisional Celina Vivar Espinosa, ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Juan de Salinas, ECUADOR Primary Years Programme Academia Moderna Charter, UNITED STATES Beacon School BRAZIL Dr. Orlando Edreira Academy, School 26, UNITED STATES Westhill Institute Carpatos Elementary Campus, MEXICO Westhill Institute, S.C. 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Colin English Elementary UNITED STATES Jose de Escandon Elementary, UNITED STATES Lincoln Elementary School, UNITED STATES Qingdao Amerasia International School CHINA Roland Park K-8 Magnet School for International Studies, UNITED STATES Theodore Roosevelt Elementary School, UNITED STATES Woodrow Wilson Elementary UNITED STATES Middle Years Programme Cache La Poudre Middle School, UNITED STATES Carl Hankey K-8 School, UNITED STATES Cedar Shoals High School UNITED STATES Concord High School, UNITED STATES Harry Stone Montessori Academy, UNITED STATES International School of Monterey, UNITED STATES Johnnie R. Carr Middle School, UNITED STATES Prairie Seeds Academy, UNITED STATES Roland Park K-8 Magnet School, UNITED STATES Sterling Middle School UNITED STATES The Aga Khan Academy, Hyderabad, INDIA Diploma Programme Ausangate Bilingual School PERU Author’s School Istochnik RUSSIAN FEDERATION Colegio Fiscal Técnico El Chaco ECUADOR Colegio Juan Bautista Montini ECUADOR Colegio Nacional Ciudad de Cuenca ECUADOR Colegio Nacional Experimental Salcedo, ECUADOR Colegio Nacional Machachi, ECUADOR Colegio Nacional Mixto El Playon, ECUADOR Colegio Técnico Cascales, ECUADOR Dar al Marefa Private School, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Escola Internacional del Camp SPAIN Gymnasium Jovan Jovanovic Zmaj SERBIA ISTEK Private Acibadem Schools TURKEY Instituto Superior Tecnológico Carlos Cisneros ECUADOR Instituto Superior Tecnológico Daniel Alvarez Burneo ECUADOR Instituto Técnico Superior Isabel de Godin ECUADOR King Abdulaziz Saudi School Rome ITALY Riga State Gymnasium Nr. 2 LATVIA Saudi School Vienna AUSTRIA State IS Seeheim Jugenheim/Schuldorf Bergstrasse GERMANY Unidad Educativa Bolívar, ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Abelardo Moncayo, ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Fiscomisional Verbo Divino, ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Mayor ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Nueva Semilla, ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Temporal Juan Bautista Vásquez, ECUADOR Primary Years Programme Ajman Academy UNITED ARAB EMIRATES British International School Kiev UKRAINE Cache La Poudre Elementary School, UNITED STATES Dr. Thomas S. O Connell Elementary School UNITED STATES Gems World Academy Abu Dhabi UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Hebron-Harman Elementary School, UNITED STATES International School of Solothurn, SWITZERLAND Lisa-Junior Primary School AUSTRIA Madison Richard Simis Elementary School, UNITED STATES Miina Härma Gümnaasium, ESTONIA Riffenburgh Elementary School UNITED STATES Roscoe Wilson Elementary School, UNITED STATES Singapore International School INDIA William H. Wharton K-8 Dual Language Academy UNITED STATES World Academy of Tirana, ALBANIA École Centrale, CANADA École Micheline-Brodeur CANADA École Saint-Édouard, CANADA École élémentaire catholique Jean-Paul II CANADA Özel Istanbul Coskun Koleji Anaokulu & Ilkokulu TURKEY Middle Years Programme Abraham Lincoln Middle School UNITED STATES Beijing Huijia Private School CHINA Cakir Middle School TURKEY Durango High School UNITED STATES Emirates IS Meadows, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Madison International School, MEXICO Meadow Park Middle School, UNITED STATES North Central High School, UNITED STATES Phuket International Academy Day School THAILAND Ray Wiltsey Middle School UNITED STATES Rockridge Secondary School CANADA School Lane Charter School UNITED STATES Strothoff International School Rhein-Main Campus Dreieich GERMANY Tsukuba International School JAPAN École Père-Marquette, CANADA École secondaire Saint-Luc, CANADA Diploma Programme Anania Shirakatsy Armenian National Lyceum Ed’l Complex-CJSC, ARMENIA COLEGIO ALAUDA SPAIN Colegio Británico, MEXICO Colegio Nacional Camilo Gallegos Toledo ECUADOR Colegio Nacional Experimental Amazonas, ECUADOR Colegio Nacional Experimental María Angélica Idrobo, ECUADOR Colegio Nacional San José, ECUADOR Eastern Mediterranean International School, ISRAEL Emirates National School UNITED ARAB EMIRATES GEMS American Academy Abu Dhabi, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES German International School Sharjah UNITED ARAB EMIRATES Instituto Tecnológico Superior Angel Polibio Chaves, ECUADOR International School Moshi Arusha Campus TANZANIA, UNITED REPUBLIC OF International School of Bydgoszcz POLAND Ludoteca Elementary & High School, Padre Víctor Grados, ECUADOR Léman International School Chengdu CHINA Metropolitan School of Panama, PANAMA Munic. Atms. Educ. Institution Kogalym Secondary School ?8, RUSSIAN FEDERATION Phorms Bilingual Gymnasium, GERMANY Royal High School, UNITED STATES SIS Swiss International School Stuttgart-Fellbach, GERMANY Seedling Public School INDIA The British School of Beijing CHINA Unidad Educativa Fiscal Experimental del Milenio, ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Juan de Velasco ECUADOR Unidad Educativa Tumbaco, ECUADOR École secondaire Gaétan Gervais, CANADA École secondaire Hanmer CANADA Stonehill International School American School of Bombay Mumbai Day school offering PYP MYP DP Dhirubhai Ambani International School Mumbai Day school offering DP Ecole Mondiale World School, Mumbai Day school offering DP Jamnabai Narsee School Mumbai Day school offering DP Ahmedabad International School Ahmedabad Day School offering PYP Mahatma Gandhi International School Ahmedabad Day school offering MYP Mahindra United World College of India Pune Boarding school offering DP Mercedes-Benz International School Pune American Embassy School Delhi Day school offering DP The British School, Delhi Day school offering DP Pathways World School, Gurgaon Boarding school offering PYP DP SelaQui World School, Dehra Dun Boarding school offering DP Canadian International School, Bangalore Mixed Boarding Day school offering DP International School of Bangalore, Bangalore Mixed Boarding Day school offering DP Oakridge International School Hyderabad Day school offering PYP Chinmaya International Residential School Coimbatore Boarding school offering DP Good Shepherd International School Ooty Boarding school offering DP Kodaikanal International School, Kodaikanal Boarding school offering DP Home Tuition Group teachers available small groupsstudents IB International Baccalaureate Programme, IGCSE, ISc, ICSE, CBSE Schools offering IB ( International Baccalaureate ) Programme Bangalore International School Geddalahalli Hennur Bagalur Road Kothanur Post Bengaluru India 560 077 Stonehill International School, 1st Floor, Embassy Point #150, Infantry Road Bengaluru 560 001 Stonehill International School 259/333/334/335 Tarahunise Post Jala Hobli, Bengaluru North 562157 Candor International School Begur Koppa Road, Hullahalli Off Bannerghatta Road, Near Electronic City Bangalore 560105 Greenwood High International School Bengaluru, No.8-14, Chickkawadayarapura, Near Heggondahalli Gunjur Post, Varthur Sarjapur Road, Bangalore 560087 Sarla Birla Academy, Bannerghatta, Bangalore, Canadian International School, Yelahanka, Bangalore Indus International School Billapura Cross Sarjapur Bangalore

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SKM Classes Bangalore

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